xref: /external/v8/test/mjsunit/unicode-test.js

// Copyright 2008 the V8 project authors. All rights reserved.
// Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
// modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are
// met:
//
//     * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
//       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
//     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above
//       copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following
//       disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided
//       with the distribution.
//     * Neither the name of Google Inc. nor the names of its
//       contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
//       from this software without specific prior written permission.
//
// THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
// "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
// LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
// A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
// OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
// SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
// LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
// DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
// THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
// (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
// OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

// Texts are from the Unibrow test suite.

// Note that this file is in UTF-8.  smjs and testkjs do not read their
// source files as UTF-8, so they will fail on this test.  If you want
// to run the test on them you can do so after filtering it with the
// following piece of perl-based line noise:

// perl -CIO -ne '$_ =~ s/([^\n -~])/"\\u" . sprintf("%04x", ord($1))/ge; print $_;' < unicode-test.js > unicode-test-ascii.js

// The result is predictably illegible even for those fluent in Hindi.

var chinese =
"中å½åå²\n" +
"[ç¼è¾é¦æ®µ]ç»´åºç¾ç§ï¼èªç±çç¾ç§å¨ä¹¦\n" +
"跳转å°ï¼ 导èª, æç´¢\n" +
"中åæ­·å²\n" +
"中å½åå²ç³»åæ¡ç®\n" +
"å²åæ¶æ\n" +
"传说æ¶æ\n" +
"(å¦è§ä¸çäºå¸)\n" +
"å¤\n" +
"å\n" +
"è¥¿å¨ 	å¨\n" +
"æ¥ç§ 	ä¸å¨\n" +
"æå½\n" +
"秦\n" +
"è¥¿æ± 	æ±\n" +
"æ°æ\n" +
"ä¸æ±\n" +
"é­ 	è 	å´ 	ä¸\n" +
"å½\n" +
"西æ 	æ\n" +
"ä¸æ 	åå­å½\n" +
"å® 	å\n" +
"æ 	åé­ 	å\n" +
"æ 	å\n" +
"å\n" +
"æ\n" +
"é½\n" +
"æ¢ 	ä¸\n" +
"é­ 	西\n" +
"é­\n" +
"é 	å\n" +
"é½ 	å\n" +
"å¨\n" +
"é\n" +
"å\n" +
"ï¼å¦è§æ­¦å¨ï¼\n" +
"äºä»£åå½\n" +
"è¾½\n" +
"(西辽) 	西\n" +
"å¤ 	åå® 	å®\n" +
"é 	åå®\n" +
"å\n" +
"æ\n" +
"æ¸\n" +
"中åæ°å½\n" +
"中å人æ°\n" +
"å±åå½ 	中å\n" +
"æ°å½\n" +
"ï¼è§å°æ¹¾é®é¢ï¼\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å½åå²å¹´è¡¨\n" +
"    * 中å½åäºå²\n" +
"    * 中å½ç¾æ¯å²\n" +
"    * 中å½ç§å­¦ææ¯å²\n" +
"    * 中å½æè²å²\n" +
"\n" +
"中å½\n" +
"天å\n" +
"æå\n" +
"中æ - æå­¦ - å²å­¦ - æè²\n" +
"èºæ¯ - å½ç» - ææ² - é³ä¹\n" +
"ç¥è¯ - å®æ - æ¯æ° - 建ç­\n" +
"æç© - çµå½± - æ饰 - 饮é£\n" +
"æ­¦æ¯ - ä¹¦æ³ - èæ¥ - å§å\n" +
"å°ç\n" +
"çå - è¡æ¿åºå - åå¸\n" +
"å°å¾ - æ游 - ç¯å¢ - çç©\n" +
"äººå£ - æ°æ - 交é - æ¶åº\n" +
"åå²\n" +
"年表 - 传说æ¶ä»£ - æ代\n" +
"æ°å½å² - å±åå½å²\n" +
"æåå² - ç§æå² - æè²å²\n" +
"人å£å² - ç»æµå² - æ¿æ²»å²\n" +
"æ¿æ²»\n" +
"中å人æ°å±åå½æ¿æ²» - 中åæ°å½æ¿æ²»\n" +
"å®ªæ³ - å¤äº¤ - åäº - å½æ\n" +
"两岸é®é¢ - 两岸å³ç³»\n" +
"ä¸ä¸ªä¸­å½ - 中å½ç»ä¸\n" +
"ç»æµ\n" +
"éè - åä¸ - å·¥ä¸ - åä¸\n" +
"中å½åçç»æµ - äºå¹´è®¡å\n" +
"å¶ä»\n" +
"å表 - ä½è² - 人æ - åªä½\n" +
"\n" +
"中å½åå²èªåæèµ·ç®çº¦æ3600å¹´ï¼èªé»å¸æ¶ä»£èµ·ç®çº¦æ4000å¤å¹´ãæåå²å­¦è认为ï¼å¨äººç±»ææå²ä¸­ï¼âåå²æ¶ä»£âçå®ä¹æ¯æä»ææå­åææ¶èµ·ç®ï¼é£ä¹åå称为âå²åâï¼ä¸­å½åå²ä¸­ä¼ è¯´ä¼ç¾²åå«å¦ï¼é»å¸æ¶ä»£ä»é¢é æå­ï¼è¿ä»£èå¤åç°äº3600å¤å¹´åï¼å¬åå1600å¹´ï¼åæçç²éª¨æã约4000å¹´åè³7000å¹´åçé¶æã约7000å¹´åè³10000å¹´åå·ææå­æ§è²­çé¾éª¨å¥å»ç¬¦å·ãå¦å¤ï¼ç®åå¨ä¸­å½åç°ææ©çå²å人类éåè·ä»çº¦200ä¸å¹´ã\n" +
"\n" +
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"\n" +
"ç±ç»æµå½¢æè§å¯ï¼ä¸­å½å¤ä»£äººå£ä¸»è¦ç±èªç±æ°ææï¼ç§æå¶ãåä¸æ´»å¨åè¾¾ãå¨ææ¶åä¸ä¸»è¦ç±å°å»ºé¢ä¸»é¶å±æ§å¶çå®åè´¸æå庶æ°çèªç±è´¸æææã秦æ±ä»¥åå®è¡ä¸­å¤®éæï¼äººå£ç±å£«ãåãå·¥ãåç­ææï¼å¶ä¸­ä»¥ä»äºåä¸çèªç±æ°ä¸ºä¸»ä½ï¼æ¯ä¸ä¸ªåæå®åå¶ä¸ç以åå°ä¸ºä¸»è¦ç产èµæ¬çè¾ä¸ºèªç±çåä¸ç»æµç¤¾ä¼ï¼ä¸äºéè¦çè¡ä¸ç±å®ååæ­ãé¤äºåä¸ï¼æå·¥ä¸ä»¥ååä¸è´¸æä¹æå¾å¤§çåå±ãæ©å¨æ±æä¸è·¯çå¼éï¼ä¿è¿äºä¸äºä¸ä¸­äºè³æ¬§æ´²çéä¸äº¤éæ¶ï¼å½éè´¸ææ©å·²èµ·æ­¥ï¼éåæ¶å¤§è¿æ²³çå¼éä¿è¿äºååè´¸æï¼åæççä¸åå¤äº¤çå¼æ¾ã交éç建设ï¼æ´ä½¿åå½æåãç©èµå¾ä»¥äº¤æµï¼å®ä»£æ¶åºç°äºçº¸å¸ï¼å代æ¶ä¸ä¸­äºçåä¸äº¤æµååç¹è£ï¼ææ¸ä¸¤ä»£åå°è¥¿æ¹å½å®¶æµ·ä¸åå±çå½±åï¼æµ·ä¸å½éè´¸æåå±è¿çãèªä¸­åæ°å½æç«èµ·è¯å¾å»ºç«æ°ä¸»å½å®¶ï¼å®è¡èªç±ç»æµï¼ç´å°1990年代å°æ¹¾è½å®æ°ä¸»å¶åº¦ï¼1950年代以å30å¤å¹´è¿éå®ç°äºåå·¥ä¸å社ä¼ç转åï¼è中å½å¤§éåå¨1949å¹´åéç¨ä¸åå¶ç»æ²»ï¼èµ·å为å¬æå¶ç计åç»æµç¤¾ä¼ï¼æ¹é©å¼æ¾åéæ­¥åç§æå¶çå¸åºç»æµç¤¾ä¼è»¢åï¼åæ¶ï¼1980年代以æ¥å·¥ä¸ååå±è¿çï¼æ°äº¿äººå£å¨ç­ç­20å¤å¹´åä»åæ°è½¬ä¸ºäº§ä¸å·¥äººï¼ç®åä»ä»è¢«ç§°ä¸ºâåæ°å·¥âç产ä¸å·¥äººå°±è¾¾å°çº¦2亿ï¼ãä¼´éç»æµçè¿éå½éåï¼ä¸­å½ç»æµæ为å¨çç»æµä¸­è¶æ¥è¶éè¦çç»æé¨åã\n" +
"ç®å½\n" +
"[éè]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 1 å²åæ¶ä»£\n" +
"    * 2 传说æ¶ä»£\n" +
"    * 3 å秦æ¶æ\n" +
"          o 3.1 ä¸ä»£\n" +
"          o 3.2 æ¥ç§æå½\n" +
"    * 4 秦æ±æ¶æ\n" +
"    * 5 é­æååææ¶æ\n" +
"    * 6 éåäºä»£æ¶æ\n" +
"    * 7 å®åæ¶æ\n" +
"    * 8 ææ¸æ¶æ\n" +
"          o 8.1 æ¸æ«çå忧å¤æ£\n" +
"    * 9 20ä¸çºªè³ä»\n" +
"    * 10 åè§\n" +
"    * 11 å¶ä»ç¹å®ä¸»é¢ä¸­å½å²\n" +
"    * 12 注解\n" +
"    * 13 åèæç®\n" +
"    * 14 ç¸å³èä½\n" +
"    * 15 å¤é¨é¾æ¥\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] å²åæ¶ä»£\n" +
"大汶å£æåçé¶é¬¹ï¼å±±æ±èå¿å¤§æ±æåºå\n" +
"大汶å£æåçé¶é¬¹ï¼å±±ä¸èå¿å¤§æ±æåºå\n" +
"\n" +
"è¿ä»ä¸ºæ­¢åç°çææ©çé«ç­çµé¿ç±»ä¸­åæç¿å¨4500ä¸å¹´åçæ´»å¨ä¸­å½æ±åä¸å¸¦ãèå¤è¯æ®æ¾ç¤º224ä¸å¹´è³25ä¸å¹´åï¼ä¸­å½å°±æç´ç«äººå±ä½ï¼ç®åèå¤åç°çæ巫山人ãåè°äººãèç°äººãå京ç´ç«äººãå京ç´ç«äººç­ãè¿äºé½æ¯ç®åæç¥è¾æ©çåå§äººç±»è¸ªè¿¹ã\n" +
"\n" +
"中å½å²åæ¶ä»£çåç§æåæ¯ç»è¿äºä»¥ä¸å ä¸ªé¶æ®µï¼ä»¥ç´ç«ç¿\n" +
"人为主çæ§ç³å¨æ¶ä»£æ©ä¸­æï¼è·ä»çº¦50è³40å¤ä¸å¹´åï¼ï¼æ¥çè¿å¥äºæ§ç³å¨æ¶ä»£ä¸­ææï¼ä»¥å±±é¡¶æ´äººä¸ºä»£è¡¨ï¼è·ä»çº¦å¨20è³10ä½ä¸å¹´åãæ°ç³å¨æ¶ä»£æ©æç代表æ§æåæ¯è£´æå²æåï¼ç´§æ¥çæ¯ä»¥ä»°é¶æå为代表çæ°ç³å¨æ¶ä»£ä¸­æãè以é¾å±±æå为代表çæ°ç³å¨æ¶ä»£ææï¼å¤§çº¦åºç°å¨å¬åå2500å¹´å°å¬åå1300å¹´é´ã\n" +
"\n" +
"æ ¹æ®ç°å¨çèå¤å­¦ç ç©¶ï¼ä¸­å½çæ°ç³å¨æ¶ä»£åç°å¤å并ç«çæå½¢ï¼çº¦è¥¿åå5000å¹´å°3000å¹´åå¨æ²³åçãæ²³åçåé¨ãçèçåé¨å山西çåé¨åºç°çä»°é¶æå便å·å¤ä½¿ç¨çº¢é¶ã彩é¶ä»¥åé£ç¨ç²åçå»å®¶ççç¹è´¨ãè大约å¨åä¸æ¶é´ï¼å°æå¨æµæ±çåè¾¹åºç°çæ²³å§æ¸¡æåãå±±ä¸çç大汶å£æåãèä¹ååç°çå¦äºé头éååä¸æå éåå为ééå¨æ¶ä»£ç代表ã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] 传说æ¶ä»£\n" +
"\n" +
"    主æ¡ç®ï¼ä¸çäºå¸\n" +
"\n" +
"å¾äººæ繪çé»å¸å\n" +
"å人æç»çé»å¸å\n" +
"\n" +
"åå¤ææå½¢æäºé»æ²³æµå中åå°åºãæ©æçåå²ï¼å£å£ç¸ä¼ ãç¥è¯ä¸­æçå¤å¼å¤©å°ã女娲é äººç说æ³ã传说中çä¸çäºå¸ï¼æ¯å¤æ以åæ°åå¹´æ°åºé¦é¢ç代表ï¼å·ä½èè¨æä¸åç说æ³ãä¸è¬è®¤ä¸ºï¼ä¸çæ¯ç§äººãä¼ç¾²ãç¥å以å女娲ãç¥è中çä¸äººï¼äºå¸ä¸è¬æé»å¸ãé¢é¡¼ãå¸å¾ãå°§ãèãèªä¸çè³äºå¸ï¼åå¹´æ ç¡®æ°ï¼æå°å½ä¸ä¸æ°åå¹´ã\n" +
"\n" +
"æ®ç°ä»æ´çåºæ¥ç传说ï¼é»å¸åç³»çå¸é¨è½çä¸ä¸ªåæ¯çé¦é¢ï¼å¼ºå¤§ä¹åå¨éªæ³ä¹æ中å»è´¥çå¸ï¼æ为æ°é¨è½èçé¦é¢ï¼ä¹ååä¸ä¸åæ¹çè©å°¤é¨è½åçå²çªï¼å¨æ¶¿é¹¿ä¹æ中彻åºå»è´¥å¯¹æï¼æ ç«äºèªå·±çé¸ä¸»å°ä½ã\n" +
"\n" +
"åæ¥é»å¸çå­å­é¢é¡¼åçå­å¸å¾ç»§ç»­æä»»é¨è½èççé¦é¢ãå¸å¾çå¿å­å°§ç»§ä½ï¼ä»æ¯ä¸åè´¤åï¼åç«äºç¦è®©å¶ï¼ä¼ ä½ç»äºèãå¨èæ¶æï¼æ´ªæ°´æ³æ»¥ï¼é²§éç¨å µå¡çæ¹æ³ï¼ç»æ洪水æ´å害äºï¼é²§è¢«å¤å³ï¼ä»çå¿å­ç¦¹éç¨ç导çæ¹æ³ï¼æåæ²»çäºæ´ªæ°´ï¼å æ­¤è¢«æ¨ä¸¾ä¸ºé¦é¢ãç¶èä»çå¿å­å¯ç ´åäºç¦è®©å¶æ¹å¼ï¼èªç«ä¸ºç(ä½æ®ãå²è®°ãåé¦æ¸¯ä¸­å­¦è¯¾æ¬æè¿°ï¼å¯æ¯è¢«æ¨ä¸¾ä¸ºé¢è¢)ï¼å»ºç«äºç¬¬ä¸ä¸ªä¸è¢­çæââå¤æï¼å¤ææç»­äº400å¤å¹´ï¼å¨æåä¸ä¸ªå¤æå主ââæ¡æ«æï¼ä¸æ¹è¯¸ä¾¯å½åé¦é¢æ汤夺åäºæ¿æï¼å»ºç«äºåæã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] å秦æ¶æ\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] ä¸ä»£\n" +
"\n" +
"    主æ¡ç®ï¼å¤æãåæãå¨æå西å¨\n" +
"\n" +
"ç²éª¨æ\n" +
"ç²éª¨æ\n" +
"\n" +
"ææ©çä¸è¢­æ代å¤æ约å¨å21ä¸çºªå°å16ä¸çºªï¼ç±äºè¿æ®µåå²ç®å没æåç°æå­æ§æç©åå°è¯ï¼æ以åªè½é åä¸çè®°å½ååºåæç©äºç¸å¯¹ç§èè¯ï¼ä¸­å½å­¦èä¸è¬è®¤ä¸ºæ²³åæ´é³äºé头éåæ¯å¤æé¦é½éåï¼æå­¦è对此ææçé®ãæ ¹æ®æå­è®°è½½ï¼å¤ææäºä¸­å½ææ©çåæ³--å¤å°æ­£ãä¸è¿ä¹åçåææ¯ç®åæåç°çææ©ææå­æç©çåå²æ¶æï¼å­å¨äºå16ä¸çºªå°çº¦å1046å¹´ãæ®è¯´å¤ææåä¸ä¸ªå主ââæ¡ï¼ç±äºèæ·«æ éè被汤æ¨ç¿»ãèå代æ¶ææå·²ç»åååè¾¾ï¼æåæ³ãééå¨ä»¥åæççæå­ââç²éª¨æç­ãåçææ¶å·²ç»æä¸ä¸ªå®æ´çå½å®¶ç»ç»ï¼å¹¶ä¸å·æäºå°å»ºçæçè§æ¨¡ãå½æ¶ç主è¦ç产é¨é¨æ¯åä¸ï¼ä¸è¿æå·¥ä¸ï¼ç¹å«æ¯ééå¨çå¶é¸æ°´å¹³ä¹å·²ç»ååé«è¶ã并ä¸å·²ç»åºç°äºåå§çç·å¨ãåæèªçåºä¹åï¼å®é½äºæ®·ï¼ä»æ²³åå®é³ï¼ï¼å æ­¤ä¹ç§°ä¸ºæ®·æãåæççä½ç»§æ¿å¶åº¦æ¯ä¼ å­æä¼ å¼ï¼å¤æå¹´é¾çé¿å¹¼ç»§æ¿ã\n" +
"\n" +
"ä¸æ­¤åæ¶ï¼é»æ²³ä¸æ¸¸çå¦ä¸ä¸ªé¨è½å¨æ­£å¨éæ­¥å´èµ·ï¼å°äºå¤§çº¦å1046å¹´ï¼å¨æ­¦çä¼çº£ï¼å¨ç§éä¹æ中åå¾å³å®æ§èå©ï¼åæç­äº¡ãå¨ææ­£å¼å»ºç«ï¼å»ºé½æ¸­æ²³æµåçé京ï¼ä»é西西å®éè¿ï¼ãä¹åå¨æçå¿ååæ¢æ¢æ¸éå°é»æ²³ä¸æ¸¸å淮河ä¸å¸¦ãå¨çæä¾ç¶æ¯å°å»ºè´µæç»æ²»ï¼æ许å¤è´µæçå°å½ï¼è¯¸ä¾¯ï¼ãå°é¼çæ¶ï¼å¨æçå½±ååå·²ç»å¨åæ¹è·¨è¿é¿æ±ï¼ä¸åå°ä»å¤©çè¾½å®ï¼è¥¿è³çèï¼ä¸å°å±±ä¸ãå¨ææ¶çå®æ³å¶åº¦å·²ç»å»ºç«ï¼æ¿ææºæä¹è¾å®åãèªåå°§ãèèè³å¨æçå°å»ºæ¶ä»£ï¼å¸çä¸è¯¸ä¾¯åèæ²»ä¹[1]ã中å½ææ©æç¡®åæ¶é´çåå²äºä»¶æ¯åçäºå¬åå841年西å¨çå½äººæ´å¨ã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] æ¥ç§æå½\n" +
"\n" +
"    主æ¡ç®ï¼å¨æãä¸å¨ãæ¥ç§æ¶æåæå½ (中å½)\n" +
"\n" +
"å師å­å­è¡æåï¼çºåæç»å®¶å³éå­æç»\n" +
"åå¸å­å­è¡æåï¼ä¸ºåæç»å®¶å´éå­æç»\n" +
"\n" +
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"中å±æ§æ¿ä¹åï¼éåâåå°é©å½ââå¬ç§åè¥âç­æ段ï¼å½å纷乱çå±å¿ææ¶å¾å°äºç¨³å®ãæç§ä¸­å±çå²è§ï¼èª1956å¹´âä¸å¤§æ¹é âå®æåï¼ä¸­å½æ­£å¼è¿å¥ç¤¾ä¼ä¸»ä¹é¶æ®µã并å¶è®¢ç¬¬ä¸ä¸ªäºå¹´è®¡åï¼å¤§ååå±éå·¥ä¸ï¼å½å®¶ç»æµä¸åº¦å¥½è½¬ãä½æ¯1958å¹´ï¼æ¯æ³½ä¸åå¨â大è·è¿âè¿å¨ä¸äººæ°å¬ç¤¾è¯è¿å¨ï¼åå°æµ®å¤¸é£âæ¾å«æâç­è°æ¥æ°æ®çæåµçè¡ãèª1959å¹´å°1961å¹´ï¼å½å®¶ç»æµåé·å¥æ¿ä¸´å´©æºçå¢å°ï¼ä¸­å±ç§°å¶ä¸ºâä¸å¹´èªç¶ç¾å®³âãæ¯æ³½ä¸å æ­¤éå±å¹åï¼ä»¥åå°å¥ä¸ºé¦çä¸æ¹å®åçææ¢å¤ç»æµï¼å½å®¶å½¢å¼å¾å°äºå稳ã1966å¹´ï¼æå大é©å½çåï¼åå°å¥ãè´ºé¾ç­äººè¢«æåï¼æ¯æ³½ä¸å度æ为æ¿æ²»é¢å¯¼ï¼æ彪ä¸åº¦æ为åå®æ¥ç­äººãå¨æ彪é´è°è´¥é²åï¼å人帮æ为æ°çéè¦æ¿æ²»å¿åã1976å¹´ï¼å¨æ©æ¥æ±å¾·ååå»ä¸ï¼9æ9æ¥ï¼æ¯æ³½ä¸å»ä¸ãåå½éæ¥æ¿äºæ¯çé¢å¯¼å°ä½ï¼å人帮被æåãä½æ¯åæåºäºâ两个å¡æ¯âç路线ï¼å½å®¶å®è´¨ä¸ä»ç¶æ²¡æå®å¨è±ç¦»æå大é©å½é¶æ®µã 1978å¹´ï¼éå°å¹³å¤åºï¼ä¸­å±åä¸å±ä¸ä¸­å¨ä¼å¬å¼ï¼æ¹é©å¼æ¾æ¶ä»£æ­£å¼å°æ¥ã中å½çç»æµå¼å§æ­¥å¥æ­£è½¨ãä½æ¯ï¼ç±äºéè´§è¨èä¸æ¿æ²»èè´¥ï¼æ°é´ä¸æ»¡æ绪å¼å§éé¿ãè¡èé¦çå»ä¸æ为æ¤æçåç导ç«ç´¢ï¼ç»è´çåäºå­åäºä»¶ãä»æ­¤ä»¥åï¼æ¹é©çæ­¥ä¼ä¸åº¦åæ»ï¼ç´å°1992å¹´éå°å¹³åå·¡åæå¾ä»¥æ¹åã1997å¹´ï¼ä¸­å½æ¶å¤é¦æ¸¯ç主æï¼æ±æ³½æ°ä¹æ¥æ¿éæ为äºæ°ç中å½é¢å¯¼äººã2002 å¹´åï¼è¡é¦æ¶æ为æ°çå½å®¶é¢å¯¼äººï¼ä¸æµ·å¸®æ·¡åºæ¿æ²»ä¸­å¿ã中å±æ¿åºè¿å å¹´æ¸æ¸æ¾å¼âé¬åå»æ¦âçå¤äº¤æ¹éï¼å¨å¤äº¤èå°ä¸å¨ä½é¢ç¹ï¼å¹¶å å¼ºå¯¹å°æ¹¾çæ»å¿ãç»æµæ¹é©ä¾ç¶å¾å°äºæç»­ï¼ä½æ¿æ²»æ¹é©çè¯é¢ä»ç¶æ¯ç¦å¿ãèç±äºè´«å¯å·®è·çæ大ä¸æ¿æ²»èè´¥ä¸è§å¥½è½¬ï¼æ°é´å¯¹ä¸­å±çè¯ä»·ä¸çæ³ä¹æ¥ç两æã\n" +
"\n" +
"è³äºä¸­åæ°å½ï¼å¨å½åºè¿å°åï¼å½æ°åå§ç»ä¿æ对æ¿æ²»ä¸è¨è®ºèªç±ç强åæ§å¶ã1986å¹´ï¼ä¸­åæ°å½ç¬¬ä¸ä¸ªå对åæ°ä¸»è¿æ­¥åæç«ï¼å¨ææ¶ä»£çæ严ä½å¶å¼å§æ¾å¨ã1987å¹´ï¼ä¸­åæ°å½æ¿åºæ­£å¼å®£åå°æ¹¾ç解严ï¼è¿å¥äºä¸ä¸ªæ°çæ¶ä»£ãä¹åï¼1996å¹´å®ç°äºç¬¬ä¸æ¬¡æ°éæ»ç»ï¼2000å¹´æ´å®ç°ç¬¬ä¸æ¬¡æ¿åå平轮æ¿ã2005å¹´ï¼æ«ä»£å½æ°å¤§ä¼å¬å¼ï¼ä¸­åæ°å½å®ªæ³åºç°äºé大修æ¹ãä»åï¼æ°ä¸»åç中åæ°å½ä»ç¶å满åéã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] åè§\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å½\n" +
"    * 中å½åå²å¹´è¡¨\n" +
"    * 中å½åå²äºä»¶å表\n" +
"    * 诸侯ä¼ç\n" +
"    * 中å½åå²å°å¾\n" +
"\n" +
"	\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å人æ°å±åå½åå²å¹´è¡¨\n" +
"    * 中å人æ°å±åå½å²\n" +
"    * æ±å­¦\n" +
"    * 中åææ\n" +
"    * 中å½åå²å¤§äºå¹´è¡¨\n" +
"\n" +
"	\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å½æå\n" +
"    * 中å½è¡æ¿åºå\n" +
"    * 中å½æ代\n" +
"    * å¤åå¨æ­ä»£å·¥ç¨\n" +
"    * 中å½å¤é½\n" +
"\n" +
"	\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å½æäºå表\n" +
"    * 中å½å½æ\n" +
"    * 中å½çå¸\n" +
"    * 中å½å代çæå主ä¸ç³»è¡¨\n" +
"    * 中å½åç诸å­å¥³å表\n" +
"    * 中åæ°å½åå²\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] å¶ä»ç¹å®ä¸»é¢ä¸­å½å²\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中å½åäºå²\n" +
"    * 中å½ç§å­¦ææ¯å²\n" +
"    * 中å½æåå²\n" +
"    * 中å½æå­¦å²\n" +
"    * 中å½èºæ¯å²\n" +
"    * 中å½ç»æµå²\n" +
"    * 中å½ä½è²å²\n" +
"    * 中å½äººå£å²\n" +
"    * 中å½çåå²\n" +
"    * 中å½çå¢å²\n" +
"    * 中å½é·åå²\n" +
"    * 中å½é£äººå²\n" +
"    * 中å½çä¸å²\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] 注解\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. â æ³ç¿¼è°ï¼ã中å½æåå²ã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] åèæç®\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. ç½å¯¿å½ä¸»ç¼ï¼ä¸­å½éå²çº²è¦ï¼1993å¹´ä¸æµ·ï¼äººæ°åºç社ï¼ISBN 7208001367\n" +
"   2. å¨è°·åèï¼ä¸­å½éå²ï¼1995å¹´ä¸æµ·ï¼äººæ°åºç社ï¼ISBN 7208003300\n" +
"   3. ææèï¼ç¬ç½ä¸çä¼ ç»ï¼2000å¹´é¦æ¸¯ï¼ä¸è书åºï¼é¦æ¸¯ï¼æéå¬å¸ï¼ISBN 9620418913\n" +
"   4. èææ¾èï¼ä¸­å½è¿ä»£å²ï¼1962å¹´å京ï¼äººæ°åºç社ï¼ç»ä¸ä¹¦å· 11001241\n" +
"   5. å¾ä¸­çº¦èï¼ä¸­å½è¿ä»£å²(ä¸å)ï¼é¦æ¸¯2001 中æ大学åºç社ï¼ISBN 9622019870\n" +
"   6. Korotayev A., Malkov A., Khaltourina D. Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Secular Cycles and Millennial Trends. Moscow: URSS, 2006. ISBN 5-484-00559-0 [1] (Chapter 2: Historical Population Dynamics in China).\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] ç¸å³èä½\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ãäºååå²ã ï¼æ­£å²ï¼\n" +
"    * ãå½å²è¦ä¹ã æ³è¯å¾µ\n" +
"    * ãå½å²å¤§çº²ã é±ç©\n" +
"    * ã中åäºåå¹´å²ã å¼ å¶æ\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç¼è¾] å¤é¨é¾æ¥\n" +
"ç»´åºå±äº«èµæºä¸­ç¸å³çå¤åªä½èµæºï¼\n" +
"中å½åå²\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中åä¸å¹´ç½\n" +
"    * ä¸ä¸ªå¨é¢ä¸é¨ç ç©¶ä¸­ååå²ç论åï¼ä¸­ååå²ç½è®ºå\n" +
"    * ï¼æ­£ä½ä¸­æ - å°æ¹¾ï¼ã中å½å¤§ç¾ç§å¨ä¹¦ãï¼ä¸­å½åå²æ¦è¿°\n";

var cyrillic =
"ÐÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ]\n" +
"ÐаÑеÑиал из Ðикипедии â Ñвободной ÑнÑиклопедии\n" +
"ÐеÑейÑи к: навигаÑиÑ, поиÑк\n" +
"ÐÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ\n" +
"ÐÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ\n" +
"ТÑи влаÑÑиÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð¸ пÑÑÑ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑаÑоÑов\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñ\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¨Ð°Ð½\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ 	\n" +
"Ðападное ЧжоÑ\n" +
"ÐоÑÑоÑное Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ 	ЧÑнÑÑÑ\n" +
"ЧжанÑго\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ\n" +
"(ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð§Ñ) - ÑмÑÑное вÑемÑ\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ 	ÐÐ°Ð¿Ð°Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ\n" +
"СинÑ, Ðан Ðан\n" +
"ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ\n" +
"ЭпоÑа ТÑоеÑаÑÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ 	ÐÑй 	Ð¨Ñ 	У\n" +
"ЦзинÑ\n" +
"	ÐÐ°Ð¿Ð°Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ\n" +
"ШеÑÑнадÑаÑÑ Ð²Ð°ÑваÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑв 	ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ\n" +
"СевеÑнÑе и ЮжнÑе ÐинаÑÑии\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñй\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¢Ð°Ð½\n" +
"ÐÑо\n" +
"	\n" +
"5 динаÑÑий и 10 ÑаÑÑÑв\n" +
"СевеÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¡Ñн\n" +
"	\n" +
"СÑн\n" +
"ЦзинÑ\n" +
"	\n" +
"ÐÐ°Ð¿Ð°Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¡Ñ\n" +
"	\n" +
"Ð®Ð¶Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¡Ñн\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ðин\n" +
"ÐинаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑеÑпÑблика\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐаÑÐ¾Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð ÐµÑпÑблика\n" +
"	ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑеÑпÑблика (ТайванÑ)\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑивилизаÑÐ¸Ñ â одна из ÑÑаÑейÑÐ¸Ñ Ð² миÑе. Ðо ÑÑвеÑждениÑм киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑÑÑнÑÑ, ÐµÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð·ÑаÑÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð¶ÐµÑ ÑоÑÑавлÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑÑÑ ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð»ÐµÑ, пÑи ÑÑом имеÑÑиеÑÑ Ð¿Ð¸ÑÑменнÑе иÑÑоÑники покÑÑваÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑиод не менее 3500 леÑ. ÐалиÑие ÑиÑÑем админиÑÑÑаÑивного ÑпÑавлениÑ, коÑоÑÑе ÑовеÑÑенÑÑвовалиÑÑ ÑменÑвÑими дÑÑг дÑÑга динаÑÑиÑми, ÑаннÑÑ Ð¾ÑвоенноÑÑÑ ÐºÑÑпнейÑÐ¸Ñ Ð°Ð³ÑаÑнÑÑ Ð¾Ñагов в баÑÑÐµÐ¹Ð½Ð°Ñ Ñек Ð¥ÑанÑÑ Ð¸ ЯнÑÐ·Ñ Ñоздавало пÑеимÑÑеÑÑва Ð´Ð»Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва, Ñкономика коÑоÑого оÑновÑвалаÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑазвиÑом земледелии, по ÑÑÐ°Ð²Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ñ ÑоÑедÑми-коÑевниками и гоÑÑами. ÐÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐµ ÑкÑепило киÑайÑкÑÑ ÑивилизаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð²ÐµÐ´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ðµ конÑÑÑианÑÑва в каÑеÑÑве гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвенной идеологии (I век до н. Ñ.) и единой ÑиÑÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¿Ð¸ÑÑма (II век до н. Ñ.).\n" +
"СодеÑжание\n" +
"[ÑбÑаÑÑ]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 1 ÐÑевний ÐиÑай\n" +
"    * 2 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Шан-ÐнÑ\n" +
"    * 3 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ (XIâIII вв. до н. Ñ.)\n" +
"    * 4 ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ\n" +
"    * 5 ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ\n" +
"    * 6 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¸ пеÑиод ÐанÑ-бÑй Ñао (IVâVI вв.)\n" +
"    * 7 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво СÑй (581â618)\n" +
"    * 8 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Тан\n" +
"    * 9 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво СÑн\n" +
"    * 10 ÐÐ¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð¸ гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ (1280â1368)\n" +
"    * 11 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ðин (1368â1644)\n" +
"    * 12 ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Цин\n" +
"          o 12.1 ÐнеÑнÑÑ ÑкÑпанÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½\n" +
"          o 12.2 ЦинÑкий ÐиÑай и РоÑÑиÑ\n" +
"          o 12.3 ÐпиÑмнÑе войнÑ\n" +
"          o 12.4 Японо-киÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð° 1894â1895 годов\n" +
"          o 12.5 ТÑойÑÑÐ²ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¸Ð½ÑеÑвенÑиÑ\n" +
"          o 12.6 УÑпеÑи ÑÑÑÑкой полиÑики в ÐиÑае\n" +
"          o 12.7 ÐаÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¦Ð·ÑоÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ ÐеÑманией\n" +
"          o 12.8 СÑо дней ÑеÑоÑм\n" +
"    * 13 XX век\n" +
"          o 13.1 ÐокÑеÑÑкое воÑÑÑание\n" +
"          o 13.2 РÑÑÑко-ÑпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"          o 13.3 СмеÑÑÑ Ð¦ÑÑи\n" +
"          o 13.4 ÐннекÑÐ¸Ñ ÐоÑеи\n" +
"          o 13.5 РеволÑÑÐ¸Ñ 1911 года и Ñоздание ÐиÑайÑкой РеÑпÑблики\n" +
"          o 13.6 ÐеÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"          o 13.7 ЭÑа милиÑаÑиÑÑов\n" +
"          o 13.8 Ðобеда ÐоминÑдана\n" +
"          o 13.9 ЯпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐºÑпаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ ÐÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"          o 13.10 Создание ÐиÑайÑкой ÐаÑодной РеÑпÑблики\n" +
"          o 13.11 ÐÑлÑÑÑÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑеволÑÑиÑ\n" +
"          o 13.12 ЭкономиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð»Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑализаÑиÑ\n" +
"    * 14 См. Ñакже\n" +
"    * 15 ÐиÑеÑаÑÑÑа\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐÑевний ÐиÑай\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑивилизаÑÐ¸Ñ (пÑедков гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвообÑазÑÑÑего ÑÑноÑа ÑанÑ) â гÑÑппа кÑлÑÑÑÑ (ÐанÑпо 1, ШиÑзÑ, ÐанÑпо 2, ÐÑодигоÑ, ЧжÑнÑанÑÑжай 2, ХоÑган 1 и дÑ.) ÑÑеднего неолиÑа (ок. 4500-2500 до н.Ñ.) в баÑÑейне Ñеки Ð¥ÑанÑÑ, коÑоÑÑе ÑÑадиÑионно обÑединÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¾Ð±Ñим названием ЯнÑао. ÐÑедÑÑавиÑели ÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÐºÑлÑÑÑÑ Ð²ÑÑаÑивали зеÑновÑе (ÑÑмиза и дÑ.) и занималиÑÑ Ñазведением ÑкоÑа (ÑвинÑи). Ðозднее в ÑÑом Ñайоне поÑвилиÑÑ Ð±Ð»Ð¸Ð¶Ð½ÐµÐ²Ð¾ÑÑоÑнÑе Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ñ Ð·Ð»Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð² (пÑениÑа и ÑÑменÑ) и поÑÐ¾Ð´Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ð¼Ð°Ñнего ÑкоÑа (коÑовÑ, овÑÑ, козÑ).\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Шан-ÐнÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑвÑм извеÑÑнÑм гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвом бÑонзового века на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð±Ñло гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Шан-ÐнÑ, ÑÑоÑмиÑовавÑееÑÑ Ð² XIV веке до н. Ñ. в ÑÑеднем ÑеÑении Ñеки Ð¥ÑанÑÑ, в Ñайоне ÐнÑÑна.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе войн Ñ ÑоÑедними племенами его ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑаÑÑиÑилаÑÑ Ð¸ к XI Ð²ÐµÐºÑ Ð´Ð¾ н. Ñ. оÑваÑÑвала ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÑовÑеменнÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑий Ð¥ÑÐ½Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¸ ШанÑÑи, а Ñакже ÑаÑÑÑ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии пÑовинÑий ШÑнÑÑи и Ð¥ÑбÑй. Уже Ñогда поÑвилиÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÑаÑки лÑнного календаÑÑ Ð¸ возникла пиÑÑменноÑÑÑ â пÑообÑаз ÑовÑеменного иеÑоглиÑиÑеÑкого киÑайÑкого пиÑÑма. ÐнÑÑÑ Ð·Ð½Ð°ÑиÑелÑно пÑевоÑÑодили окÑÑжаÑÑие Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼ÐµÐ½Ð° и Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ð¹ ÑоÑки зÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ â Ñ Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð±Ñло пÑоÑеÑÑионалÑное войÑко, иÑполÑзовавÑее бÑонзовое оÑÑжие, лÑки, копÑÑ Ð¸ боевÑе колеÑниÑÑ. ÐнÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑакÑиковали ÑеловеÑеÑкие жеÑÑвопÑиноÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ â ÑаÑе вÑего в жеÑÑÐ²Ñ Ð¿ÑиноÑилиÑÑ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñе.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð XI веке до н. Ñ. гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÐÐ½Ñ Ð±Ñло завоÑвано немногоÑиÑленнÑм западнÑм племенем ЧжоÑ, коÑоÑое до ÑÑого наÑодилоÑÑ Ð² ваÑÑалÑнÑÑ Ð¾ÑноÑениÑÑ Ñ Ð¸Ð½ÑÑами, но поÑÑепенно ÑкÑепилоÑÑ Ð¸ Ñоздало коалиÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ (XIâIII вв. до н. Ñ.)\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½ÐµÑа в виде моÑÑги. ÐÑовинÑÐ¸Ñ ÐоÑн, V-III в. до н.Ñ.\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½ÐµÑа в виде моÑÑги. ÐÑовинÑÐ¸Ñ ÐоÑн, V-III в. до н.Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐбÑиÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑва ЧжоÑ, оÑваÑÑвавÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÑакÑиÑеÑки веÑÑ Ð±Ð°ÑÑейн Ð¥ÑанÑÑ, Ñо вÑеменем ÑаÑпалаÑÑ Ð½Ð° множеÑÑво ÑопеÑниÑаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ñобой ÑамоÑÑоÑÑелÑнÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвеннÑÑ Ð¾Ð±Ñазований â изнаÑалÑно, наÑледÑÑвеннÑÑ Ñделов на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑиÑÑ, заÑелÑннÑÑ ÑазлиÑнÑми племенами и ÑаÑположеннÑÑ Ð½Ð° Ñдалении Ð¾Ñ ÑÑÐ¾Ð»Ð¸Ñ â ЦзÑнÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ (западной - около г. СианÑ) и ЧÑнÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ (воÑÑоÑной - Ðои, ÐоÑн). ЭÑи ÑÐ´ÐµÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÑедоÑÑавлÑлиÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ владение ÑодÑÑвенникам и пÑиближÑннÑм веÑÑовного пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ â обÑÑно ÑжоÑÑÑам. РмеждоÑÑобной боÑÑбе ÑиÑло пеÑвонаÑалÑнÑÑ Ñделов поÑÑепенно ÑокÑаÑалоÑÑ, а Ñами ÑÐ´ÐµÐ»Ñ ÑкÑеплÑлиÑÑ Ð¸ ÑÑановилиÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐµ ÑамоÑÑоÑÑелÑнÑми.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐаÑеление Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð±Ñло ÑазноÑоднÑм, пÑиÑÑм наиболее кÑÑпнÑÑ Ð¸ ÑазвиÑÑÑ ÐµÐ³Ð¾ ÑаÑÑÑ ÑоÑÑавлÑли инÑÑÑ. РгоÑÑдаÑÑÑве Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð·Ð½Ð°ÑиÑелÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑ Ð¸Ð½ÑÑев бÑла ÑаÑÑелена на новÑÑ Ð·ÐµÐ¼Ð»ÑÑ Ð½Ð° воÑÑоке, где бÑла поÑÑÑоена Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ñ ÑÑолиÑа â ЧÑнÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ (ÑовÑÐµÐ¼ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¿ÑовинÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¥ÑнанÑ).\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÐ»Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑиода Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð² Ñелом ÑаÑакÑеÑно акÑивное оÑвоение новÑÑ Ð·ÐµÐ¼ÐµÐ»Ñ, ÑаÑÑеление и ÑÑниÑеÑкое ÑмеÑивание вÑÑодÑев из ÑазлиÑнÑÑ Ñайонов, Ñделов (впоÑледÑÑвии â ÑаÑÑÑв), ÑÑо ÑпоÑобÑÑвовало ÑÐ¾Ð·Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑндаменÑа бÑдÑÑей киÑайÑкой обÑноÑÑи.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑиод Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ (XIâIII вв. до н. Ñ.) делиÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° Ñак назÑваемÑе Ðападное и ÐоÑÑоÑное ЧжоÑ, ÑÑо ÑвÑзано Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑеездом пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð² 770 до н. Ñ. под ÑгÑозой наÑеÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ð°ÑваÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн из ЦзÑнÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ â пеÑвонаÑалÑной ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑва â в ЧÑнÑжоÑ. Ðемли в Ñайоне ÑÑаÑой ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð±Ñли оÑÐ´Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¸Ð· ÑоÑзников пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑва, коÑоÑÑй Ñоздал здеÑÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñй Ñдел ЦинÑ. ÐпоÑледÑÑвии именно ÑÑÐ¾Ñ Ñдел ÑÑÐ°Ð½ÐµÑ ÑенÑÑом единой киÑайÑкой импеÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑиод ÐоÑÑоÑное ЧжоÑ, в ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð¾ÑеÑедÑ, ÑазделÑеÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° два пеÑиода:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ЧÑнÑÑÑ ( «ÐеÑиод ÐеÑÐ½Ñ Ð¸ ÐÑени» VIIIâV вв. до н. Ñ.);\n" +
"    * ЧжанÑго («ÐеÑиод СÑажаÑÑиÑÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑв», VâIII вв. до н. Ñ.).\n" +
"\n" +
"РпеÑиод ÐоÑÑоÑного Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑ ÑенÑÑалÑного пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ â вана, ÑÑна Ðеба (ÑÑнÑ-ÑзÑ), пÑавÑÑего ÐоднебеÑной по ÐандаÑÑ Ðеба (ÑÑнÑ-мин), â поÑÑепенно оÑлабла, а ведÑÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð¸ÑиÑеÑкÑÑ ÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ ÑÑали игÑаÑÑ ÑилÑнÑе ÑделÑ, пÑевÑаÑавÑиеÑÑ Ð² кÑÑпнÑе ÑаÑÑÑва. ÐолÑÑинÑÑво из Ð½Ð¸Ñ (за иÑклÑÑением окÑаиннÑÑ) именовали ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Â«ÑÑединнÑми гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвами» (ÑжÑн-го), ведÑÑими ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð¿ÑоиÑÑождение Ð¾Ñ ÑаннеÑжоÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ñделов.\n" +
"\n" +
"РпеÑиод ÐоÑÑоÑного Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ ÑоÑмиÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¾ÑновнÑе ÑилоÑоÑÑкие ÑÐºÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð´Ñевнего ÐиÑÐ°Ñ â конÑÑÑианÑÑво (VIâV вв. до н. Ñ.), моизм (V в. до н. Ñ.), даоÑизм (IV в. до н. Ñ.), легизм.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð VâIII вв. до н.Ñ. (пеÑиод ЧжанÑго) ÐиÑай вÑÑÑÐ¿Ð°ÐµÑ Ð² железнÑй век. РаÑÑиÑÑÑÑÑÑ ÑелÑÑкоÑозÑйÑÑвеннÑе плоÑади, ÑвелиÑиваÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ÑÑигаÑионнÑе ÑиÑÑемÑ, ÑазвиваÑÑÑÑ ÑемÑÑла, ÑеволÑÑионнÑе Ð¸Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÑоиÑÑодÑÑ Ð² военном деле.\n" +
"\n" +
"РпеÑиод ЧжанÑго на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÑоÑÑÑеÑÑвовало ÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÐºÑÑпнейÑÐ¸Ñ ÑаÑÑÑв â ÐÑй, Чжао и Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ (Ñанее вÑе ÑÑи вÑодили в ÑаÑÑÑво ЦзинÑ), ЦинÑ, Ци, Ð¯Ð½Ñ Ð¸ ЧÑ. ÐоÑÑепенно в ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе ожеÑÑоÑÑнного ÑопеÑниÑеÑÑва веÑÑ ÑÑало одеÑживаÑÑ Ñамое западное â ЦинÑ. ÐÑиÑоединив одно за дÑÑгим ÑоÑедние ÑаÑÑÑва, в 221 до н. Ñ. пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ â бÑдÑÑий импеÑаÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ Ð¥Ñан â обÑединил веÑÑ ÐиÑай под Ñвоей влаÑÑÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"Так в ÑеÑедине III века до н. Ñ. завеÑÑилÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑиод ÐоÑÑоÑного ЧжоÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐбÑединив дÑевнекиÑайÑкие ÑаÑÑÑва, импеÑаÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ Ð¥Ñан конÑиÑковал вÑÑ Ð¾ÑÑжие Ñ Ð½Ð°ÑелениÑ, пеÑеÑелил деÑÑÑки ÑÑÑÑÑ Ñемей наÑледÑÑвенной знаÑи из ÑазлиÑнÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑв в новÑÑ ÑÑолиÑÑ â СÑнÑÑн и Ñазделил огÑомнÑÑ ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð½Ð° 36 новÑÑ Ð¾Ð±Ð»Ð°ÑÑей, коÑоÑÑе возглавили назнаÑаемÑе гÑбеÑнаÑоÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑи Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÑÑанди бÑли ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¾Ð±Ð¾ÑониÑелÑнÑе ÑÑÐµÐ½Ñ (валÑ) ÑевеÑнÑÑ ÑжоÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑаÑÑÑв и Ñоздана ÐÐµÐ»Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑÑена. ÐÑло ÑооÑÑжено неÑколÑко ÑÑÑаÑегиÑеÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ñог из ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð½Ð° окÑÐ°Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑии. Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе ÑÑпеÑнÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½ на ÑевеÑе гÑÐ½Ð½Ñ (ÑÑннÑ) бÑли оÑÑеÑÐ½ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð·Ð° ÐеликÑÑ ÑÑенÑ. Ðа Ñге к импеÑии бÑли пÑиÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð·Ð½Ð°ÑиÑелÑнÑе ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии племÑн ÑÑ, в Ñом ÑиÑле ÑевеÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑ ÑовÑеменного ÐÑеÑнама.\n" +
"СÑÑоиÑелÑÑÑво Ðеликой киÑайÑкой ÑÑенÑ, пÑоÑÑнÑвÑейÑÑ Ð½Ð° более Ñем 6700 км, бÑло наÑаÑо в III веке до н. Ñ. Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑиÑÑ ÑевеÑнÑÑ Ñайонов ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¾Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð±ÐµÐ³Ð¾Ð² коÑевников.\n" +
"СÑÑоиÑелÑÑÑво Ðеликой киÑайÑкой ÑÑенÑ, пÑоÑÑнÑвÑейÑÑ Ð½Ð° более Ñем 6700 км, бÑло наÑаÑо в III веке до н. Ñ. Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑиÑÑ ÑевеÑнÑÑ Ñайонов ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¾Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð±ÐµÐ³Ð¾Ð² коÑевников.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÑÑанди, ÑÑÑоивÑий вÑе Ñвои ÑеÑоÑÐ¼Ñ Ð½Ð° оÑÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð»ÐµÐ³Ð¸Ð·Ð¼Ð° Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ñменной диÑÑиплиной и жеÑÑокими наказаниÑми пÑовинивÑиÑÑÑ, пÑеÑледовал конÑÑÑианÑев, пÑÐµÐ´Ð°Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð½Ð¸ (погÑебение заживо) и ÑÐ¶Ð¸Ð³Ð°Ñ Ð¸Ñ ÑоÑÐ¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ â за Ñо, ÑÑо они Ñмели вÑÑÑÑпаÑÑ Ð¿ÑоÑив ÑÑÑановивÑегоÑÑ Ð² ÑÑÑане жеÑÑоÑайÑего гнÑÑа.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÑекÑаÑила ÑÑÑеÑÑвование вÑкоÑе поÑле ÑмеÑÑи Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÑÑанди.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑоÑÑÑ Ð² иÑÑоÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑиÑ, полÑÑивÑÑÑ Ð½Ð°Ð·Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ðµ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ (206 до н. Ñ.â220 н. Ñ.) оÑновал вÑÑÐ¾Ð´ÐµÑ Ð¸Ð· ÑÑеднего ÑиновниÑеÑÑва ÐÑ Ðан (Ðао-ÑзÑ), один из военаÑалÑников возÑожденного ÑаÑÑÑва ЧÑ, воевавÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑив Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ñле ÑмеÑÑи импеÑаÑоÑа Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÑÑана в 210 г. до н.Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐиÑай в ÑÑо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑеживал ÑкономиÑеÑкий и ÑоÑиалÑнÑй кÑизиÑ, вÑзваннÑй поÑеÑей ÑпÑавлÑемоÑÑи и войнами военаÑалÑников ÑинÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð°Ñмий Ñ ÑлиÑами ÑниÑÑоженнÑÑ Ñаннее ÑаÑÑÑв, пÑÑавÑиÑÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÑÑÑановиÑÑ ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвенноÑÑÑ. Ðз-за пеÑеÑелений и войн знаÑиÑелÑно ÑокÑаÑилаÑÑ ÑиÑленноÑÑÑ ÑелÑÑкого наÑÐµÐ»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² оÑновнÑÑ Ð°Ð³ÑаÑнÑÑ ÑайонаÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÐ°Ð¶Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¾ÑобенноÑÑÑ ÑÐ¼ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑий в ÐиÑае ÑоÑÑоÑла в Ñом, ÑÑо ÐºÐ°Ð¶Ð´Ð°Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑиÑодила на ÑÐ¼ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¿ÑедÑдÑÑей в обÑÑановке ÑоÑиалÑно-ÑкономиÑеÑкого кÑизиÑа, оÑÐ»Ð°Ð±Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑенÑÑалÑной влаÑÑи и войн Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð°ÑалÑниками. ÐÑноваÑелем нового гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ÑÑановилÑÑ ÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¸Ð· ниÑ, кÑо мог заÑваÑиÑÑ ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð¸ наÑилÑÑÑвенно оÑÑÑÑаниÑÑ Ð¿ÑавивÑего импеÑаÑоÑа Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи.\n" +
"\n" +
"С пÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ðао-ÑÐ·Ñ (206â195 до н.Ñ.) наÑинаеÑÑÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñй пеÑиод киÑайÑкой иÑÑоÑии, коÑоÑÑй полÑÑил название ÐÐ°Ð¿Ð°Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑи импеÑаÑоÑе У-ди (140â87 до н. Ñ.) бÑла взÑÑа на вооÑÑжение Ð¸Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑилоÑоÑÐ¸Ñ â воÑÑÑановленное и ÑеÑоÑмиÑованное конÑÑÑианÑÑво, коÑоÑое ÑÑало гоÑподÑÑвÑÑÑей оÑиÑиалÑной идеологией вмеÑÑо диÑкÑедиÑиÑовавÑего ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Ð»ÐµÐ³Ð¸Ð·Ð¼Ð° Ñ ÐµÐ³Ð¾ жÑÑÑкими ноÑмами и беÑÑеловеÑной пÑакÑикой. Ðменно Ñ ÑÑого вÑемени беÑÑÑ ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð½Ð°Ñало киÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑÑÑианÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑиÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑи нем ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑанÑÑкой импеÑии знаÑиÑелÑно ÑаÑÑиÑÑеÑÑÑ. ÐÑли ÑниÑÑÐ¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð²ÑеÑÑкое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÐамвÑÐµÑ (ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑовÑеменной пÑовинÑии ÐÑандÑн, ÐÑанÑи-ЧжÑанÑкого авÑономного Ñайона и ÑÐµÐ²ÐµÑ ÐндокиÑайÑкого полÑоÑÑÑова), вÑеÑÑкие гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва в ÑжнÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑÑ ÑовÑеменнÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑий ЧжÑÑзÑн и ФÑÑзÑнÑ, коÑейÑкое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ЧоÑон, пÑиÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´ÐµÐ½ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð·ÐµÐ¼Ð»Ð¸ на Ñго-западе, ÑÑÐ½Ð½Ñ Ð¾ÑÑеÑÐ½ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð´Ð°Ð»ÐµÐµ на ÑевеÑе.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑкий пÑÑеÑеÑÑвенник Чжан ЦÑÐ½Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ¾Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ°ÐµÑ Ð´Ð°Ð»ÐµÐºÐ¾ на запад и опиÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð¼Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¸Ðµ ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¡Ñедней Ðзии (ФеÑгана, ÐакÑÑиÑ, ÐаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ дÑ.). ÐÐ´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð¿Ñойденного им маÑÑÑÑÑа пÑокладÑваеÑÑÑ ÑоÑговÑй пÑÑÑ ÑеÑез ÐжÑнгаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ ÐоÑÑоÑнÑй ТÑÑкеÑÑан в ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¡Ñедней Ðзии и Ðлижнего ÐоÑÑока â Ñак назÑваемÑй «Ðеликий ÑÑлковÑй пÑÑÑ». ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð° некоÑоÑое вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ÑинÑÐµÑ Ñебе оазиÑÑ-пÑоÑогоÑÑдаÑÑÑва Ð²Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð¨Ñлкового пÑÑи и ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанÑÐµÑ ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð¸Ñние до ÐамиÑа.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð I в. н. Ñ. в ÐиÑай из Ðндии наÑÐ¸Ð½Ð°ÐµÑ Ð¿ÑоникаÑÑ Ð±Ñддизм.\n" +
"\n" +
"РпеÑиод Ñ 8 по 23 гг. н. Ñ. влаÑÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ðан Ðан, пÑовозглаÑаÑÑий ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑаÑоÑом и оÑноваÑелем гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва СинÑ. ÐаÑинаеÑÑÑ ÑÑд пÑеобÑазований, коÑоÑÑй пÑеÑÑваеÑÑÑ ÑкологиÑеÑкой каÑаÑÑÑоÑой - Ñека Ð¥ÑанÑÑ Ð¸Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ð»Ð° ÑÑÑло. Ðз-за ÑÑеÑлеÑнего голода ÑенÑÑалÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑ Ð¾Ñлабла. Ð ÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑÑловиÑÑ Ð½Ð°ÑалоÑÑ Ð´Ð²Ð¸Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ðµ пÑедÑÑавиÑелей Ñода ÐÑ Ð·Ð° возвÑаÑение пÑеÑÑола. Ðан Ðан бÑл ÑбиÑ, ÑÑолиÑа взÑÑа, влаÑÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð·Ð²ÑаÑилаÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑии ÐÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐовÑй пеÑиод полÑÑил название ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ, он пÑодлилÑÑ Ð´Ð¾ 220 г. н. Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¸ пеÑиод ÐанÑ-бÑй Ñао (IVâVI вв.)\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑÑоÑнÑÑ Ð¥Ð°Ð½Ñ Ñменил пеÑиод ТÑоеÑаÑÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ (ÐÑй, Ð¨Ñ Ð¸ У). Ð Ñоде боÑÑÐ±Ñ Ð·Ð° влаÑÑÑ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð°ÑалÑниками бÑло оÑновано новое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ (265â420).\n" +
"\n" +
"РнаÑале IV века ÐиÑай подвеÑгаеÑÑÑ Ð½Ð°ÑеÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ñевников â ÑÑÐ½Ð½Ñ (гÑннов), ÑÑнÑбийÑев, ÑÑнов, Ñзе и дÑ. ÐеÑÑ Ð¡ÐµÐ²ÐµÑнÑй ÐиÑай бÑл заÑваÑен коÑевниками, коÑоÑÑе Ñоздали здеÑÑ Ñвои ÑаÑÑÑва, Ñак назÑваемÑе 16 ваÑваÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑв ÐиÑаÑ. ÐнаÑиÑелÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой знаÑи бежала на Ñг и Ñго-воÑÑок, оÑнованное Ñам гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво полÑÑило название ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑевники пÑиÑодÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð»Ð½Ð°Ð¼Ð¸, одна за дÑÑгой, и поÑле каждой из ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð»Ð½ в СевеÑном ÐиÑае возникаÑÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñе ÑаÑÑÑва и пÑавÑÑие динаÑÑии, коÑоÑÑе, однако, пÑинимаÑÑ ÐºÐ»Ð°ÑÑиÑеÑкие киÑайÑкие Ð½Ð°Ð·Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ (Чжао, ЯнÑ, ÐÑн, ЦинÑ, ÐÑй и дÑ.).\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑÑо вÑемÑ, Ñ Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð¹ ÑÑоÑонÑ, пÑоиÑÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ð°ÑваÑизаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾Ð±Ñаза жизни оÑедлÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑев â ÑазгÑл жеÑÑокоÑÑи, пÑоизвола, маÑÑовÑÑ ÑбийÑÑв, неÑÑабилÑноÑÑи, казней и беÑконеÑнÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑевоÑоÑов. Ð Ñ Ð´ÑÑгой ÑÑоÑонÑ, пÑиÑелÑÑÑ-коÑевники акÑивно ÑÑÑемÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ÑполÑзовÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкий опÑÑ ÑпÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ киÑайÑкÑÑ ÐºÑлÑÑÑÑÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ ÑÑабилизаÑии и ÑпÑоÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ñвоей влаÑÑи â моÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой конÑÑÑианÑкой ÑивилизаÑии в конеÑном ÑÑÑÑе гаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð»Ð½Ñ Ð½Ð°ÑеÑÑвий ваÑваÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн, коÑоÑÑе подвеÑгаÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑаизаÑии. РконÑÑ VI века поÑомки коÑевников пÑакÑиÑеÑки полноÑÑÑÑ Ð°ÑÑимилиÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑами.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ðа ÑевеÑе ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð²ÐµÑÑ Ð² ÑÑолеÑней боÑÑбе Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð½ÐµÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкими ÑаÑÑÑвами беÑÑÑ ÑÑнÑбийÑкое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Тоба ÐÑй (СевеÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑй), обÑединивÑее под Ñвоей влаÑÑÑÑ Ð²ÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐµÐ²ÐµÑнÑй ÐиÑай (баÑÑейн Ð¥ÑанÑÑ) и к конÑÑ V века в боÑÑбе пÑоÑив ÑжнокиÑайÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва СÑн ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанивÑее ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð¸Ñние до беÑегов ЯнÑзÑ. ÐÑи ÑÑом Ñже в VI веке, как бÑло Ñказано, заÑваÑÑики-ÑÑнÑбийÑÑ Ð°ÑÑимилиÑовалиÑÑ Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ð²Ð»ÑÑÑим болÑÑинÑÑвом меÑÑного наÑелениÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"С наÑалом ваÑваÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²ÑоÑжений на ÑÐµÐ²ÐµÑ ÐиÑаÑ, ÑопÑовождавÑиÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð°ÑÑовÑм ÑниÑÑожением и поÑабоÑением меÑÑного наÑелениÑ, до миллиона меÑÑнÑÑ Ð¶Ð¸Ñелей â в пеÑвÑÑ Ð¾ÑеÑÐµÐ´Ñ Ð·Ð½Ð°ÑнÑÑ, богаÑÑÑ Ð¸ обÑазованнÑÑ, вклÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑаÑоÑÑкий двоÑ, â пеÑебÑалиÑÑ Ð½Ð° Ñг, в ÑайонÑ, ÑÑавниÑелÑно недавно пÑиÑоединÑннÑе к импеÑии. ÐÑиÑелÑÑÑ Ñ ÑевеÑа, заÑелив ÑеÑнÑе долинÑ, акÑивно занÑлиÑÑ Ð²ÑÑаÑиванием ÑиÑа и поÑÑепенно пÑевÑаÑили ЮжнÑй ÐиÑай в оÑновной земледелÑÑеÑкий Ñайон импеÑии. Уже в V веке здеÑÑ ÑÑали ÑобиÑаÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ два ÑÑÐ¾Ð¶Ð°Ñ ÑиÑа в год. Резко ÑÑкоÑилаÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑаизаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ аÑÑимилÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¼ÐµÑÑного наÑелениÑ, колонизаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²ÑÑ Ð·ÐµÐ¼ÐµÐ»Ñ, ÑÑÑоиÑелÑÑÑво новÑÑ Ð³Ð¾Ñодов и ÑазвиÑие ÑÑаÑÑÑ. Ðа Ñге ÑоÑÑедоÑоÑилÑÑ ÑенÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой кÑлÑÑÑÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐдновÑеменно здеÑÑ ÑкÑеплÑÐµÑ Ñвои позиÑии бÑддизм â на ÑевеÑе и Ñге поÑÑÑоено Ñже неÑколÑко деÑÑÑков ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð°ÑÑÑÑей Ñ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐµ Ñем 2 млн. монаÑов. Рнемалой ÑÑепени ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑÐ°Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð±Ñддизма ÑпоÑобÑÑвÑÐµÑ Ð¾Ñлабление оÑиÑиалÑной Ñелигии â конÑÑÑианÑÑва â в ÑвÑзи Ñ Ð²Ð°ÑваÑÑкими вÑоÑжениÑми и междоÑÑобиÑами. ÐеÑвÑми киÑайÑкими бÑддиÑÑами, ÑпоÑобÑÑвовавÑими попÑлÑÑизаÑии новой Ñелигии, бÑли пÑивеÑженÑÑ Ð´Ð°Ð¾Ñизма â именно Ñ Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¾ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑеводилиÑÑ Ñ ÑанÑкÑиÑа на киÑайÑкий дÑевние бÑддийÑкие ÑекÑÑÑ. ÐÑддизм поÑÑепенно ÑÑал пÑоÑвеÑаÑÑей Ñелигией.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво СÑй (581â618)\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑоÑеÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑаизаÑии ваÑваÑизованного ÑевеÑа и колонизованного Ñга ÑоздаÑÑ Ð¿ÑедпоÑÑлки Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ обÑÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÑанÑ. Ð 581 ÑевеÑнокиÑайÑкий Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÐºÐ¾Ð²Ð¾Ð´ÐµÑ Ð§Ð¶Ð¾Ñ Ð¯Ð½ ЦзÑÐ½Ñ Ð¾Ð±ÑединÑÐµÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ Ñвоей влаÑÑÑÑ Ð²ÐµÑÑ Ð¡ÐµÐ²ÐµÑнÑй ÐиÑай и пÑовозглаÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²ÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñй (581â618), а поÑле ÑниÑÑÐ¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑжнокиÑайÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ЧÑÐ½Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð·Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð»ÑÐµÑ Ð¾Ð±ÑединÑннÑй ÐиÑай. РнаÑале VII века его ÑÑн Ян Ðи ведÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑив коÑейÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ÐогÑÑÑ (611 - 614) и вÑеÑнамÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ÐанÑÑан, ÑÑÑÐ¾Ð¸Ñ Ðеликий канал Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð¥ÑанÑÑ Ð¸ ЯнÑÐ·Ñ Ð´Ð»Ñ ÑÑанÑпоÑÑиÑовки ÑиÑа Ñ Ñга в ÑÑолиÑÑ, ÑоздаÑÑ ÑоÑкоÑнÑе двоÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÑолиÑе ÐоÑн, воÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ð°Ð²Ð»Ð¸Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð¸ ÑÑÑÐ¾Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñе ÑÑаÑÑки Ðеликой киÑайÑкой ÑÑенÑ, пÑиÑедÑей в Ñпадок за ÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ð»ÐµÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐодданнÑе не вÑдеÑживаÑÑ ÑÑÐ³Ð¾Ñ Ð¸ лиÑений и воÑÑÑаÑÑ. Ян Ðи ÑбиваÑÑ, а динаÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñй ÑменÑÐµÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¢Ð°Ð½ (618â907), оÑноваÑÐµÐ»Ñ â ÑанÑийÑкий Ñеодал Ðи ЮанÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Тан\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑавиÑели из динаÑÑии ÐÑ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ¾Ð½Ñили Ñ Ð²ÑÑÑÑплениÑми знаÑи и пÑовели ÑÑд ÑÑпеÑнÑÑ Ð¿ÑеобÑазований. ÐÑоиÑÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ñазделение ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð½Ð° 10 пÑовинÑий, бÑла воÑÑÑановлена \"наделÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑиÑÑема\", ÑÑовеÑÑенÑÑвовано админиÑÑÑаÑивное законодаÑелÑÑÑво, ÑкÑеплена веÑÑÐ¸ÐºÐ°Ð»Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи, оживилиÑÑ ÑоÑÐ³Ð¾Ð²Ð»Ñ Ð¸ гоÑодÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¶Ð¸Ð·Ð½Ñ. ÐнаÑиÑелÑно ÑвелиÑилиÑÑ ÑазмеÑÑ Ð¼Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾Ñодов и ÑиÑленноÑÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑодÑкого наÑелениÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"РконÑÑ VII века ÑÑиливÑееÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ðµ могÑÑеÑÑво ТанÑкой импеÑии пÑÐ¸Ð²Ð¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ðº ÑаÑÑиÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð° ÑÑÑÑ ÐоÑÑоÑно-ТÑÑкÑкого и Ðападно-ТÑÑкÑкого каганаÑов. ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑва, ÑаÑположеннÑе в ÐжÑнгаÑии и ÐоÑÑоÑном ТÑÑкеÑÑане, на некоÑоÑое вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑÑановÑÑÑÑ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ð¼Ð¸ ÐиÑаÑ. ÐоÑейÑкое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÐогÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ¾Ñено и ÑÑановиÑÑÑ ÐнÑдÑнÑким намеÑÑниÑеÑÑвом ÐиÑаÑ. ÐÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ñ Ð¾ÑкÑÑÑ Ðеликий ÑÑлковÑй пÑÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð VIIIâX вв. в ÐиÑае полÑÑаÑÑ ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанение новÑе ÑелÑÑкоÑозÑйÑÑвеннÑе кÑлÑÑÑÑÑ â в ÑаÑÑноÑÑи, Ñай, Ñлопок.\n" +
"\n" +
"РазвиваеÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð¾ÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑоÑговлÑ, главнÑм обÑазом ÑеÑез ÐÑанÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ (ÐанÑон), Ñ Ðндией и ÐÑаном, ÐÑабÑким ХалиÑаÑом, коÑейÑким гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвом Силла и Японией.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð VIII веке импеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¢Ð°Ð½ оÑлаблÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑликÑÑ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ ÑенÑÑалÑной влаÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ военнÑми намеÑÑниками на пеÑиÑеÑии. ÐконÑаÑелÑно гоÑподÑÑво динаÑÑии ÐÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ÑÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð° Ð¥Ñан Чао за пÑеÑÑол 874â901.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑеÑение долгого вÑемени (907â960) в ÑÑÑане не ÑдаÑÑÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÑÑÑановиÑÑ ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвеннÑÑ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑ, ÑÑо ÑвÑзано Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ð¾ÑÑобнÑми войнами, оÑобенно на ÑевеÑе ÑÑÑанÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво СÑн\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 960 военаÑалÑник Чжао ÐÑан-Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¾ÑновÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñн (960â1279). ÐÑе ÑÑи ÑÑолеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡Ñн пÑоÑли под знаком ÑÑпеÑного Ð´Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÐиÑай Ñо ÑÑоÑÐ¾Ð½Ñ ÑевеÑнÑÑ ÑÑепнÑÑ Ð½Ð°Ñодов.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑÑ Ð² наÑале X века ÑÑилилоÑÑ ÑазвиÑие и конÑолидаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑомонголÑÑкой ÑÑниÑеÑкой обÑноÑÑи киданей, ÑоÑедÑÑвовавÑей Ñ ÐиÑаем на ÑевеÑо-воÑÑоке. ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво киданей, оÑнованное в 916 и ÑÑÑеÑÑвовавÑее по 1125, полÑÑило название ÐÑо. ÐкÑивно ÑкÑеплÑÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑевеÑнÑÑ ÑÑбежаÑ, кидани оÑÑоÑгли ÑаÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑий (ÑаÑÑÑ ÑовÑеменнÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑий Ð¥ÑбÑй и ШанÑÑи). ÐÑÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ñ ÑпÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² гоÑÑдаÑÑÑве ÐÑо бÑли ÑÐ¾Ð·Ð´Ð°Ð½Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑами и коÑейÑами, на оÑнове киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ÐµÑоглиÑов и из киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑлеменÑов пиÑÑма бÑла Ñоздана пиÑÑменноÑÑÑ, ÑазвивалиÑÑ Ð³Ð¾Ñода, ÑемÑÑла, ÑоÑговлÑ. Ðе ÑÑмев ÑпÑавиÑÑÑÑ Ñ ÑоÑедÑми и веÑнÑÑÑ ÑÑÑаÑеннÑе ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии, СÑнÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ Ð±Ñла вÑнÑждена пойÑи на подпиÑание в 1004 миÑного договоÑа и ÑоглаÑиÑÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° вÑплаÑÑ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð¸. Ð 1042 Ð´Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð±Ñла ÑвелиÑена, а в 1075 ÐиÑай оÑдал киданÑм еÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑ Ñвоей ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð Ñо же вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑевеÑо-западнÑÑ Ð¾ÐºÑÐ°Ð¸Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¡ÑнÑкой импеÑии, к Ð·Ð°Ð¿Ð°Ð´Ñ Ð¾Ñ ÐºÐ¸Ð´Ð°Ð½ÐµÐ¹, на ÑÑбеже XâXI вв. ÑкладÑваеÑÑÑ ÑилÑное гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÑангÑÑов â Ðападное СÑ. ТангÑÑÑ Ð¾ÑÑоÑгли Ð¾Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑ ÑовÑеменной пÑовинÑии ШÑнÑÑи, Ñеликом ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑовÑеменной пÑовинÑии ÐанÑÑÑ Ð¸ ÐинÑÑ-Ð¥ÑÑйÑкого авÑономного Ñайона. С 1047 СÑнÑкой импеÑии пÑиÑлоÑÑ Ð¸ ÑангÑÑам плаÑиÑÑ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ñ ÑеÑебÑом и ÑÑлком.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑмоÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° вÑнÑжденнÑе ÑеÑÑиÑоÑиалÑнÑе ÑÑÑÑпки ÑоÑедÑм пеÑиод СÑн ÑÑиÑаеÑÑÑ ÑпоÑой ÑкономиÑеÑкого и кÑлÑÑÑÑного ÑаÑÑвеÑа ÐиÑаÑ. РаÑÑÑÑ ÑиÑло гоÑодов, пÑодолжаеÑÑÑ ÑоÑÑ ÑиÑленноÑÑи гоÑодÑкого наÑелениÑ, киÑайÑкие ÑемеÑленники доÑÑигаÑÑ Ð²ÑÑÐ¾Ñ Ð² изгоÑовлении изделий из ÑаÑÑоÑа, ÑÑлка, лака, деÑева, Ñлоновой коÑÑи и дÑ. ÐзобÑеÑÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¸ компаÑ, ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанÑеÑÑÑ ÐºÐ½Ð¸Ð³Ð¾Ð¿ÐµÑаÑание, вÑводÑÑÑÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñе вÑÑокоÑÑожайнÑе ÑоÑÑа зеÑновÑÑ, ÑвелиÑиваÑÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÐµÐ²Ñ Ñлопка. Ðдной из наиболее впеÑаÑлÑÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ ÑÑÑекÑивнÑÑ Ð¸Ð· даннÑÑ Ð¸Ð½Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ñий бÑло вполне ÑознаÑелÑное, ÑиÑÑемаÑиÑеÑкое и ÑоÑоÑо оÑганизованное внедÑение и ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанение новÑÑ ÑоÑÑов ÑкоÑоÑпелого ÑиÑа из Южного ÐÑеÑнама (ЧампÑ).\n" +
"Чжан ЦзÑдÑанÑ. «Ðо Ñеке в ÐÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑопÑиÑ» (XII век).\n" +
"Чжан ЦзÑдÑанÑ. «Ðо Ñеке в ÐÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑопÑиÑ» (XII век).\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð XII веке ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÑиÑодиÑÑÑ Ð¾ÑдаÑÑ ÐµÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑÑÑ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñм заÑваÑÑикам â ÑжноманÑÑжÑÑÑким ÑжÑÑÑжÑнÑм, ÑоздавÑим (на базе ÑниÑÑоженной ими в 1125 импеÑии киданей ÐÑо) гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво (впоÑледÑÑвии â импеÑиÑ) Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ (1115â1234), гÑаниÑÑ ÐºÐ¾ÑоÑой пÑоÑодили по Ñ. Ð¥ÑайÑÑ. ÐÑи ÑÑом ÑаÑÑÑ ÑазбиÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸Ð´Ð°Ð½ÐµÐ¹ ÑÑла на запад, где в Ñайоне Ñек Ð¢Ð°Ð»Ð°Ñ Ð¸ Ð§Ñ ÑложилоÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво каÑа-киÑаев â Ðападное ÐÑо (1124â1211).\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1127 ÑжÑÑÑжÑни заÑваÑÑваÑÑ ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑии СÑн â ÐайÑÑн и беÑÑÑ Ð² плен импеÑаÑоÑÑкÑÑ ÑемÑÑ. Ðдин из ÑÑновей импеÑаÑоÑа Ð±ÐµÐ¶Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° Ñг, в ХанÑжоÑ, коÑоÑÑй впоÑледÑÑвии ÑÑановиÑÑÑ ÑÑолиÑей новой â ÑжноÑÑнÑкой импеÑии (1127â1280). ÐÑодвижение аÑмии ÑжÑÑÑжÑней на Ñг ÑдеÑÐ¶Ð¸Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð»Ð¸ÑÑ Ñека ЯнÑзÑ. ÐÑаниÑа Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¸ ÑжноÑÑнÑкой импеÑией ÑÑÑанавливаеÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ междÑÑеÑÑÑ Ð¥ÑанÑÑ Ð¸ ЯнÑзÑ. СевеÑнÑй ÐиÑай Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñ Ð½Ð° длиÑелÑное вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·ÑваеÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ гоÑподÑÑвом иноземнÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ²Ð°Ñелей.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1141 подпиÑан миÑнÑй договоÑ, ÑоглаÑно коÑоÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¡ÑнÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑизнаÑÑ ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Ð²Ð°ÑÑалом импеÑии Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ Ð¸ обÑзÑеÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°ÑиÑÑ ÐµÐ¹ данÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐÐ¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð¸ гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ (1280â1368)\n" +
"\n" +
"РнаÑале XIII века в ÐиÑай вÑоÑгаÑÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ. Ðо XIII века Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ ÑвлÑлиÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑой ÑÑепной обÑноÑÑи, коÑоÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑÑ Ð½Ð°Ð·Ñвали \"ÑаÑаÑами\". ÐÑ Ð¿ÑедÑеÑÑвенники â пÑоÑомонголÑÑкие и ÑаннемонголÑÑкие гÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ð¸ наÑодÑ, одним из коÑоÑÑÑ Ð±Ñли кидани, пÑедÑÑавлÑли Ñобой ÑÑепнÑÑ ÐºÐ¾Ñевников, ÑазводивÑÐ¸Ñ Ð»Ð¾Ñадей и ÑогаÑÑй ÑкоÑ, коÑевавÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾Ñ Ð¿Ð°ÑÑбиÑа к паÑÑбиÑÑ Ð¸ оÑганизованнÑÑ Ð² неболÑÑие ÑодоплеменнÑе коллекÑивÑ, ÑвÑзаннÑе обÑноÑÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑоиÑÑождениÑ, ÑзÑка, кÑлÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ Ñ. п.\n" +
"\n" +
"СоÑедÑÑво ÑазвиÑой киÑайÑкой ÑивилизаÑии ÑпоÑобÑÑвовало ÑÑкоÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑеÑÑа ÑÐ¾Ð·Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн, а заÑем и моÑнÑÑ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼ÐµÐ½Ð½ÑÑ ÑоÑзов во главе Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð¸ÑÑелÑнÑми вождÑми. Ð 1206 на вÑемонголÑÑком кÑÑÑлÑае вождÑм вÑÐµÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð² бÑл пÑовозглаÑÑн победивÑий в жеÑÑокой междоÑÑобной боÑÑбе ТемÑÑин, пÑинÑвÑий Ð¸Ð¼Ñ Ð¸ ÑиÑÑл ЧингиÑÑана.\n" +
"\n" +
"ЧингиÑÑан Ñоздал оÑганизованнÑÑ Ð¸ боеÑпоÑобнÑÑ Ð°ÑмиÑ, коÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¸ ÑÑала ÑеÑаÑÑим ÑакÑоÑом в поÑледÑÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑÑпеÑÐ°Ñ ÑÑавниÑелÑно немногоÑиÑленного монголÑÑкого ÑÑноÑа.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐокоÑив ÑоÑедние наÑÐ¾Ð´Ñ Ð®Ð¶Ð½Ð¾Ð¹ СибиÑи, ЧингиÑÑан в 1210 поÑÑл войной на ÑжÑÑÑжÑней и в 1215 взÑл Ðекин.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1219â1221 бÑла ÑазоÑена СÑеднÑÑ ÐÐ·Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ ÑазбиÑо гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ХоÑезмÑаÑов. Ð 1223 â ÑазбиÑÑ ÑÑÑÑкие кнÑзÑÑ, в 1226â1227 â ÑниÑÑожено гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÑангÑÑов. Ð 1231 оÑновнÑе ÑÐ¸Ð»Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð² веÑнÑлиÑÑ Ð² СевеÑнÑй ÐиÑай и к 1234 завеÑÑили ÑазгÑом ÑжÑÑÑжÑнÑÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ЦзинÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÐ°Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð² Южном ÐиÑае бÑли пÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ñ Ñже в 1250-Ñ, поÑле поÑодов в ÐвÑÐ¾Ð¿Ñ Ð¸ на Ðлижний и СÑедний ÐоÑÑок. ÐнаÑале Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑили ÑÑÑанÑ, окÑÑжавÑие Южно-СÑнÑкÑÑ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ â гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ðали (1252â1253), Ð¢Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑ (1253). Ð 1258 монголÑÑкие войÑка под пÑедводиÑелÑÑÑвом Ñана Ð¥ÑÐ±Ð¸Ð»Ð°Ñ Ñ ÑазнÑÑ ÑÑоÑон вÑоÑглиÑÑ Ð² ЮжнÑй ÐиÑай, но оÑÑÑеÑÑÐ²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð½Ð¾Ð² помеÑала Ð½ÐµÐ¾Ð¶Ð¸Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑмеÑÑÑ Ðеликого Ñана ÐÑÐ½ÐºÑ (1259). Хан Ð¥Ñбилай, заÑваÑив ÑанÑкий пÑеÑÑол, в 1260 пеÑенÑÑ ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð¸Ð· ÐаÑакоÑÑма на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ (ÑнаÑала в Ðайпин, а в 1264 в ЧжÑÐ½Ð´Ñ â ÑовÑеменнÑй Ðекин). СÑолиÑÑ ÑжноÑÑнÑкого гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва ХанÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð°Ð¼ ÑдалоÑÑ Ð²Ð·ÑÑÑ Ð»Ð¸ÑÑ Ð² 1276. Ð 1280 веÑÑ ÐиÑай бÑл завоÑван, а СÑнÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ â ÑниÑÑожена.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑле покоÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ñан Ð¥Ñбилай оÑновÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²ÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ (1271â1368), на ÑлÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ð¹ влаÑÑи пÑивлекаÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð¸, ÑжÑÑÑжÑни, ÑÑÑки и даже евÑопейÑÑ â в ÑаÑÑноÑÑи, в ÑÑо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÐиÑай поÑеÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð²ÐµÐ½ÐµÑианÑкий кÑÐ¿ÐµÑ ÐаÑко Ðоло.\n" +
"\n" +
"ТÑжÑлÑй ÑкономиÑеÑкий, полиÑиÑеÑкий и наÑионалÑнÑй гнÑÑ, ÑÑÑановленнÑй монголÑÑкими Ñеодалами, ÑдеÑÐ¶Ð¸Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑазвиÑие ÑÑÑанÑ. ÐножеÑÑво киÑайÑев бÑло обÑаÑено в ÑабÑÑво. Ðемледелие и ÑоÑÐ³Ð¾Ð²Ð»Ñ Ð±Ñли подоÑванÑ. Ðе вÑполнÑлиÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ¾Ð±ÑодимÑе ÑабоÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ поддеÑÐ¶Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ÑÑигаÑионнÑÑ ÑооÑÑжений (дамб и каналов), ÑÑо пÑивело в 1334 к ÑÑдовиÑÐ½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð²Ð¾Ð´Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ гибели неÑколÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑÐ¾Ñ ÑÑÑÑÑ Ñеловек. ÐеликÑий ÐиÑайÑкий канал бÑл поÑÑÑоен во вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»ÑÑкого гоÑподÑÑва.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐаÑодное недоволÑÑÑво новÑми пÑавиÑелÑми вÑлилоÑÑ Ð² моÑное паÑÑиоÑиÑеÑкое движение и воÑÑÑаниÑ, коÑоÑÑе возглавили ÑÑководиÑели Ñайного обÑеÑÑва «ÐелÑй лоÑоÑ» (ÐайлÑнÑÑзÑо).\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Ðин (1368â1644)\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе длиÑелÑной боÑÑÐ±Ñ Ð² ÑеÑедине XIV века Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð±Ñли изгнанÑ. РвлаÑÑи пÑиÑÑл один из ÑÑководиÑелей воÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ð¸Ñ â ÑÑн кÑеÑÑÑÑнина Ð§Ð¶Ñ Ð®Ð°Ð½ÑÑжан, оÑновавÑий гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвоÐин (1368â1644).\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐонголÑ, оÑÑеÑнÑннÑе на ÑевеÑ, пÑиÑÑÑпаÑÑ Ðº акÑÐ¸Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¾ÑÐ²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑепей ÑовÑеменной Ðонголии. ÐмпеÑÐ¸Ñ Ðин подÑинÑÐµÑ Ñебе ÑаÑÑÑ ÑжÑÑÑжÑнÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн, гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÐанÑÑжао (ÑовÑеменнÑе пÑовинÑии ЮнÑÐ½Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¸ ÐÑйÑжоÑ), ÑаÑÑÑ ÑовÑеменнÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑий ЦинÑай и СÑÑÑанÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐиÑайÑкий ÑÐ»Ð¾Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ командой ЧжÑн Ð¥Ñ, ÑоÑÑоÑÑий из неÑколÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð´ÐµÑÑÑков многопалÑбнÑÑ ÑÑегаÑов, за пеÑиод Ñ 1405 по 1433 ÑовеÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð½ÐµÑколÑко моÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑкÑпедиÑий в Юго-ÐоÑÑоÑнÑÑ ÐзиÑ, ÐÐ½Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ к воÑÑоÑÐ½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð±ÐµÑежÑÑ ÐÑÑики. Ðе пÑинеÑÑ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð¸ÐºÐ°ÐºÐ¾Ð¹ ÑкономиÑеÑкой вÑгодÑ, ÑкÑпедиÑии бÑли пÑекÑаÑенÑ, а коÑабли â ÑазобÑанÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð XVI веке пÑоиÑÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¿ÑÑка ÑÑиливÑейÑÑ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ð¸ вÑоÑгнÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² ÐиÑай и ÐоÑеÑ. Ð ÑÑо же вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð² ÐиÑай пÑоникаÑÑ ÐµÐ²ÑопейÑÑ â поÑÑÑгалÑÑÑ, иÑпанÑÑ, голландÑÑ. Ð 1557 ÐоÑÑÑÐ³Ð°Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð¾Ð²Ð»Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ»Ð° на пÑÐ°Ð²Ð°Ñ Â«Ð°ÑендÑ» киÑайÑкой ÑеÑÑиÑоÑией ÐомÑÐ½Ñ (Ðакао). Ð ÐиÑае поÑвлÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ ÑÑиÑÑианÑкие миÑÑионеÑÑ â иезÑиÑÑ. Ðни пÑивезли в ÐиÑай новÑе инÑÑÑÑменÑÑ Ð¸ меÑÐ°Ð½Ð¸Ð·Ð¼Ñ â ÑаÑÑ, аÑÑÑономиÑеÑкие пÑибоÑÑ, наладили здеÑÑ Ð¿ÑоизводÑÑво огнеÑÑÑелÑного оÑÑжиÑ. Ð Ñо же вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¾Ð½Ð¸ занимаÑÑÑÑ Ð´Ð¾ÑконалÑнÑм изÑÑением ÐиÑаÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐоÑÑдаÑÑÑво Цин\n" +
"\n" +
"РконÑÑ XVI века ÑевеÑнÑе ÑоÑеди импеÑии Ðин â поÑомки ÑжÑÑÑжÑнÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñн, ÑазбиÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð²ÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð§Ð¸Ð½Ð³Ð¸ÑÑаном, â обÑединÑÑÑÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐºÑÑг Ð²Ð»Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐанÑÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ пÑедводиÑелÑÑÑвом Ð²Ð¾Ð¶Ð´Ñ ÐÑÑÑаÑи (1559â1626). Ð 1609 ÐÑÑÑаÑи пÑекÑаÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°ÑиÑÑ Ð´Ð°Ð½Ñ ÐиÑаÑ, а заÑем пÑовозглаÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑобÑÑвеннÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð·Ð¸Ð½Ñ. С 1618 манÑÑжÑÑÑ ÑÑиливаÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¾ÑÑжÑнное давление на ÐиÑай. Ðа воÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð»ÐµÑ Ð¾Ð½Ð¸ вÑÑодÑÑ Ð¿ÑакÑиÑеÑки к Ðеликой киÑайÑкой ÑÑене (на кÑайнем воÑÑоке).\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑеемник ÐÑÑÑаÑи ÐбаÑай пÑовозглаÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑаÑоÑом и менÑÐµÑ Ð½Ð°Ð·Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ðµ динаÑÑии на Цин. РнаÑале XVII века манÑÑжÑÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ²Ð°Ð»Ð¸ ЮжнÑÑ (ÐнÑÑÑеннÑÑ) ÐонголиÑ. Ðа вÑей ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии Южной ÐанÑÑжÑÑии и заÑваÑеннÑÑ ÑанÑÑв Южной Ðонголии ÑÑÑанавливаеÑÑÑ ÑенÑÑÐ°Ð»Ð¸Ð·Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð°Ð´Ð¼Ð¸Ð½Ð¸ÑÑÑаÑиÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐанÑÑжÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð½Ð½Ð¸Ñа, поддеÑÐ¶Ð°Ð½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð½ÑÑÑенними монголами, наÑÐ¸Ð½Ð°ÐµÑ ÑовеÑÑаÑÑ ÑегÑлÑÑнÑе набеги на ÐиÑай, гÑÐ°Ð±Ñ Ð¸ обÑаÑÐ°Ñ Ð² ÑабÑÑво ÑоÑни ÑÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑев. ÐмпеÑаÑоÑÑ Ðин пÑиÑодиÑÑÑ Ð½Ð°Ð¿ÑавиÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑевеÑнÑе ÑÑбежи ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð»ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ командованием У СанÑгÑÑ. Тем вÑеменем в ÐиÑае ÑазгоÑаеÑÑÑ Ð¾ÑеÑедное кÑеÑÑÑÑнÑкое воÑÑÑание. Ð 1644 кÑеÑÑÑÑнÑкие оÑÑÑÐ´Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ пÑедводиÑелÑÑÑвом Ðи ЦзÑÑÑна, ÑазгÑомив вÑе оÑÑалÑнÑе аÑмии, занимаÑÑ Ðекин, а Ñам Ðи ЦзÑÑÑн пÑовозглаÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÐµÐ±Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑаÑоÑом. У СанÑгÑй пÑопÑÑÐºÐ°ÐµÑ Ð¼Ð°Ð½ÑÑжÑÑÑкÑÑ ÐºÐ¾Ð½Ð½Ð¸ÑÑ Ð½Ð° Ðекин. 6 иÑÐ½Ñ 1644 манÑÑжÑÑÑ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑÑваÑÑ ÑÑолиÑÑ. Ðи ЦзÑÑÑн вÑкоÑе гибнеÑ, а манÑÑжÑÑÑ Ð¾Ð±ÑÑвлÑÑÑ Ñвоего малолеÑнего импеÑаÑоÑа ШÑнÑÑжи пÑавиÑелем вÑего ÐиÑаÑ. У СанÑгÑй вмеÑÑе Ñо вÑей аÑмией пеÑеÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑлÑÐ¶Ð±Ñ Ðº завоеваÑелÑм.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑÑба пÑоÑив манÑÑжÑÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑÑиков пÑодолжаеÑÑÑ ÐµÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ð³Ð¾, но оÑлабленнÑй ÐиÑай не в ÑÐ¸Ð»Ð°Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑивоÑÑоÑÑÑ ÑоÑоÑо вооÑÑжÑÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¸ оÑÐ³Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ð·Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹ÑкÑ. ÐоÑледний Ð¾Ð¿Ð»Ð¾Ñ ÑопÑоÑÐ¸Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ â Ð¢Ð°Ð¹Ð²Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑен манÑÑжÑÑами в 1683.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐанÑÑжÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð² гоÑÑдаÑÑÑве Цин пÑавила Ñ 1644 по 1911 год. Ð ÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð°Ð½ÑÑжÑÑÑкой знаÑи наÑодилиÑÑ Ð²ÑÑÑие оÑÐ³Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи и ÑÑководÑÑво аÑмией. СмеÑаннÑе бÑаки бÑли запÑеÑенÑ, и Ñем не менее манÑÑжÑÑÑ Ð±ÑÑÑÑо киÑаизиÑовалиÑÑ, Ñем более ÑÑо, в оÑлиÑие Ð¾Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð², они не пÑоÑивопоÑÑавлÑли ÑÐµÐ±Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой кÑлÑÑÑÑе.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐаÑÐ¸Ð½Ð°Ñ Ñ ÐанÑи (Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ 1662â1723), манÑÑжÑÑÑкие импеÑаÑоÑÑ Ð±Ñли ÑевноÑÑнÑми конÑÑÑианÑами, ÑпÑавлÑÑ ÑÑÑаной по дÑевним законам. ÐиÑай под влаÑÑÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑии Цин в XVIIâXVIII вв. ÑазвивалÑÑ Ð´Ð¾ÑÑаÑоÑно инÑенÑивно. РнаÑÐ°Ð»Ñ XIX века в ÐиÑае наÑÑиÑÑвалоÑÑ Ñже около 300 млн. Ñеловек â пÑимеÑно в пÑÑÑ Ñаз болÑÑе, Ñем в ÑÑеднем на пÑоÑÑжении пÑедÑдÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð´Ð²ÑÑ ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð»ÐµÑ. ÐемогÑаÑиÑеÑкое давление пÑивело к необÑодимоÑÑи инÑенÑиÑикаÑии ÑелÑÑкого ÑозÑйÑÑвенного пÑоизводÑÑва пÑи акÑивном ÑÑаÑÑии гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва. ÐанÑÑжÑÑÑ Ð¾Ð±ÐµÑпеÑили покоÑноÑÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкого наÑелениÑ, но пÑи ÑÑом забоÑилиÑÑ Ð¾ пÑоÑвеÑании Ñкономики ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¸ благоÑоÑÑоÑнии наÑода.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐнеÑнÑÑ ÑкÑпанÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑавиÑели гоÑÑдаÑÑÑва Цин пÑоводили полиÑÐ¸ÐºÑ Ð¸Ð·Ð¾Ð»ÑÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð½ÐµÑнего миÑа. ÐвÑопейÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ð·Ð°ÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÑи не заÑÑонÑла ÐиÑай. ÐаÑолиÑеÑкие миÑÑионеÑÑ Ð¸Ð³Ñали замеÑнÑÑ ÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð¿Ñи импеÑаÑоÑÑком двоÑе до конÑа XVII века, поÑле Ñего ÑÑиÑÑианÑкие ÑеÑкви бÑли поÑÑепенно закÑÑÑÑ, а миÑÑионеÑÑ â вÑÑÐ»Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¸Ð· ÑÑÑанÑ. Ð ÑеÑедине XVIII века бÑла ликвидиÑована ÑоÑÐ³Ð¾Ð²Ð»Ñ Ñ ÐµÐ²ÑопейÑами, за иÑклÑÑением одного поÑÑа в ÐанÑоне (ÐÑанÑжоÑ). ÐпоÑнÑм пÑнкÑом иноÑÑÑанной ÑоÑговли оÑÑавалÑÑ Ð¾ÑÑÑов Ðакао, наÑодивÑийÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ конÑÑолем поÑÑÑгалÑÑев.\n" +
"\n" +
"РпеÑвÑе два ÑÑолеÑÐ¸Ñ ÑинÑкой динаÑÑии ÐиÑай, закÑÑÑÑй Ð¾Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð²ÑедневнÑÑ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑакÑов Ñ Ð²Ð½ÐµÑним миÑом, пÑоÑвлÑл ÑÐµÐ±Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº ÑилÑное незавиÑимое гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво, оÑÑÑеÑÑвлÑÑÑее ÑкÑпанÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ вÑÐµÑ Ð½Ð°Ð¿ÑавлениÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐаÑÑалом ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð±Ñла ÐоÑеÑ. Ð ÑеÑедине XVIII века в импеÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ñла СевеÑÐ½Ð°Ñ (ÐнеÑнÑÑ) ÐонголиÑ. Ð 1757 бÑло ÑниÑÑожено ÐжÑнгаÑÑкое ÑанÑÑво, и ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐµÐ³Ð¾ вмеÑÑе Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ¾ÑÑннÑм к 1760 ÐоÑÑоÑнÑм ТÑÑкеÑÑаном бÑла вклÑÑена в ÑоÑÑав ЦинÑкой импеÑии под названием СинÑÑзÑн («ÐÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð³ÑаниÑа»). ÐоÑле ÑÑда поÑодов манÑÑжÑÑо-киÑайÑкой аÑмии пÑоÑив ТибеÑа ÑÑÐ¾Ñ Ñайон бÑл в конÑе XVIII века пÑиÑоединÑн к ЦинÑкой импеÑии. ÐÐ¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñкой импеÑии пÑоÑив ÐиÑÐ¼Ñ (1765â1769) и ÐÑеÑнама (1788â1789) оказалиÑÑ Ð½ÐµÑдаÑнÑми и законÑилиÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ñажением ÑинÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐдновÑеменно оÑÑÑеÑÑвлÑлаÑÑ ÑкÑпанÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑÐµÐ²ÐµÑ Ð¸ ÑевеÑо-воÑÑок, ÑÑо неминÑемо пÑивело к конÑликÑÑ Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑией в ÐÑиамÑÑÑе. Ð ÑеÑение двÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐºÐ¾Ð² ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÑвелиÑилаÑÑ Ð¿ÑакÑиÑеÑки вдвое. ЦинÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾Ð±Ð·Ð°Ð²ÐµÐ»Ð°ÑÑ Ñвоего Ñода бÑÑеÑнÑми зонами â ÐанÑÑжÑÑией, Ðонголией, ТибеÑом, СинÑÑзÑном â коÑоÑÑе оÑÑанÑли киÑайÑкие земли.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑинÑком ÐиÑае лÑбÑе оÑиÑиалÑнÑе пÑедÑÑавиÑели иноÑÑÑаннÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑв ÑаÑÑмаÑÑивалиÑÑ Ð¸ÑклÑÑиÑелÑно как пÑедÑÑавиÑели ваÑÑалÑнÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑв â ÑеалÑнÑÑ Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ поÑенÑиалÑнÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ЦинÑкий ÐиÑай и РоÑÑиÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"    ÐÑÐ½Ð¾Ð²Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑÑаÑÑÑ: РоÑÑийÑко-киÑайÑкие оÑноÑениÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑвÑе Ñаги по ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÑÑко-киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¾ÑноÑений бÑли пÑедпÑинÑÑÑ Ð Ð¾ÑÑией в конÑе пеÑиода Ðин (миÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð. ÐеÑлина в 1618â1619), но оÑновнÑе миÑÑии (ФÑдоÑа Ðайкова в 1654â1657, ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ñ Ð¡Ð¿Ð°ÑаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð² 1675â1678 и дÑ.) поÑледовали Ñже в ÑинÑкий пеÑиод. ÐаÑаллелÑно Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÑиÑми Ñло пÑодвижение на воÑÑок ÑÑÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð² â поÑÐ¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑвопÑоÑодÑев ÐаÑÐ¸Ð»Ð¸Ñ ÐоÑÑкова (1643â1646) и ÐÑоÑÐµÑ Ð¥Ð°Ð±Ð°Ñова (1649â1653) положили наÑало оÑÐ²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÑÑкими лÑдÑми ÐÑиамÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ пÑивели к пÑиÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐµÐ³Ð¾ к РоÑÑии, в Ñо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº манÑÑжÑÑÑ ÑÑиÑали ÑÑи ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð¾Ð½Ñ Ñвоей воÑÑиной.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑеÑедине XVII века на Ð¾Ð±Ð¾Ð¸Ñ Ð±ÐµÑÐµÐ³Ð°Ñ ÐмÑÑа Ñже ÑÑÑеÑÑвовали ÑÑÑÑкие кÑепоÑÑи-оÑÑÑоги (ÐлбазинÑкий, ÐÑмаÑÑкий и дÑ.), кÑеÑÑÑÑнÑкие ÑÐ»Ð¾Ð±Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¸ паÑни. Ð 1656 бÑло обÑазовано ÐаÑÑÑкое (позднее â ÐлбазинÑкое) воеводÑÑво, в коÑоÑое вÑодила долина ÐеÑÑнего и СÑеднего ÐмÑÑа по обоим беÑегам.\n" +
"\n" +
"ХоÑÑ Ð³ÑаниÑа импеÑии Цин Ñогда пÑоÑодила ÑÑÑÑ ÑевеÑнее ÐÑодÑнÑкого полÑоÑÑÑова («ÐвовÑй палиÑад»), в 1650-е Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¸ позднее ЦинÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿ÐµÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¿ÑÑалаÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ð¹ Ñилой заÑваÑиÑÑ ÑÑÑÑкие Ð²Ð»Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² баÑÑейне ÐмÑÑа и пÑедоÑвÑаÑиÑÑ Ð¿ÑинÑÑие меÑÑнÑми племенами ÑоÑÑийÑкого подданÑÑва. ÐанÑÑжÑÑÑкое войÑко на какое-Ñо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð²ÑÑеÑнило казаков из кÑепоÑÑи Ðлбазин. ÐÑлед за миÑÑиÑми ФÑдоÑа Ðайкова и ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ñ Ð¡Ð¿Ð°ÑаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð¿Ñавила в 1686 к погÑаниÑнÑм влаÑÑÑм на ÐмÑÑе полномоÑное поÑолÑÑÑво ФÑдоÑа Ðоловина Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¼Ð¸Ñного ÑÑегÑлиÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑликÑа.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐеÑеговоÑÑ Ð²ÐµÐ»Ð¸ÑÑ Ð² окÑÑжении многоÑÑÑÑÑной манÑÑжÑÑÑкой аÑмии. С киÑайÑкой ÑÑоÑÐ¾Ð½Ñ Ð² пеÑеговоÑÐ°Ñ ÑÑаÑÑвовали миÑÑионеÑÑ-иезÑиÑÑ, пÑоÑививÑиеÑÑ ÑоглаÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑией, ÑÑо еÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐµ оÑложнÑло обÑÑановкÑ. ÐиÑай оÑказалÑÑ Ð¾Ð¿ÑеделиÑÑ ÑÑÑÑко-киÑайÑкÑÑ Ð³ÑаниÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ ÐмÑÑÑ, поÑÑебовав Ñебе вÑÑ ÐлбазинÑкое воеводÑÑво, вÑÑ ÐабайкалÑе, а впоÑледÑÑвии â вообÑе вÑе земли к воÑÑÐ¾ÐºÑ Ð¾Ñ ÐенÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"УгÑÐ¾Ð¶Ð°Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑиÑÑ ÐеÑÑинÑк ÑÑÑÑмом, ÑинÑкие пÑедÑÑавиÑели вÑнÑдили Ðоловина ÑоглаÑиÑÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑÑод ÑÑÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ñ ÐеÑÑнего и СÑеднего ÐмÑÑа. Ðо ÐеÑÑинÑÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾ÑÑ Ð Ð¾ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð±Ñла вÑнÑждена ÑÑÑÑпиÑÑ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½Ñкой импеÑии Ñвои Ð²Ð»Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ пÑÐ°Ð²Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð±ÐµÑÐµÐ³Ñ Ñ. ÐÑгÑÐ½Ñ Ð¸ на ÑаÑÑи левого и пÑавого беÑегов ÐмÑÑа. Ðазаки бÑли обÑÐ·Ð°Ð½Ñ ÑазÑÑÑиÑÑ Ð¸ оÑÑавиÑÑ Ðлбазин. ÐÑледÑÑвие ÑазноÑÑений в ÑекÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñа, ÑоÑÑавленнÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ð¶Ð´Ð¾Ð¹ из ÑÑоÑон, однако, болÑÑÐ°Ñ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð°Ð»Ð°ÑÑ Ð½ÐµÑазгÑаниÑенной и ÑакÑиÑеÑки пÑевÑаÑилаÑÑ Ð² бÑÑеÑнÑÑ Ð·Ð¾Ð½Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð´Ð²ÑÐ¼Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвами. РазгÑаниÑение Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑией и ÐиÑаем в пÑÐµÐ´ÐµÐ»Ð°Ñ ÑÑой Ð·Ð¾Ð½Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð²ÐµÑÑилоÑÑ Ð² XIX веке. ÐконÑаÑелÑно гÑаниÑа РоÑÑии Ñ ÐиÑаем на ÐалÑнем ÐоÑÑоке бÑла опÑеделена ÐйгÑнÑÑким (1858) и ÐекинÑким (1860) договоÑами; она пÑоÑла по Ñекам ÐмÑÑ Ð¸ УÑÑÑÑи ÑеÑез озеÑо Ханка и гоÑнÑе ÑÑебÑÑ Ð´Ð¾ Ñ. ТÑманÑÑзÑн; ÑÑÑÑко-киÑайÑкое ÑеÑÑиÑоÑиалÑное ÑазгÑаниÑение в ЦенÑÑалÑной Ðзии бÑло завеÑÑено к ÑеÑедине 1890-Ñ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐпиÑмнÑе войнÑ\n" +
"ТеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑобÑÑвенно ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð² 1875\n" +
"ТеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÑобÑÑвенно ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð² 1875\n" +
"\n" +
"РконÑÑ XVIII века ÑоÑÐ³Ð¾Ð²Ð»Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ñ Ð²Ð½ÐµÑним миÑом Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñ Ð½Ð°Ñала ÑаÑÑиÑÑÑÑÑÑ. ÐиÑайÑкий ÑÑлк, ÑаÑÑоÑ, Ñай и дÑÑгие ÑоваÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÑзовалиÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑим ÑпÑоÑом в ÐвÑопе, но киÑайÑÑ Ð¾ÑказÑвалиÑÑ ÑÑо-либо покÑпаÑÑ Ñ ÐµÐ²ÑопейÑев, Ñак ÑÑо Ñем пÑиÑодилоÑÑ Ð¿Ð»Ð°ÑиÑÑ ÑеÑебÑом за киÑайÑкие ÑоваÑÑ. Тогда англиÑане наÑали ввозиÑÑ Ð² ÐиÑай опиÑм â в оÑновном конÑÑабандой из Ðндии â и вÑкоÑе пÑиобÑили к кÑÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¾Ð¿Ð¸Ñма меÑÑное наÑеление, оÑобенно в пÑимоÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑайонаÑ. Ðвоз опиÑма поÑÑоÑнно возÑаÑÑал и ÑÑал подлиннÑм бедÑÑвием Ð´Ð»Ñ ÑÑÑанÑ, ÑÑо пÑивело к ÑеÑии ÐпиÑмнÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½ в ÑеÑедине XIX века. ÐоÑажение в ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¿Ñивело к поÑÑÐµÐ¿ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¿ÑевÑаÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð² ÑакÑиÑеÑкÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÑÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ ÐµÐ²ÑопейÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð´ÐµÑжав.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] Японо-киÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð° 1894â1895 годов\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1874 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑила ФоÑмозÑ, однако вÑнÑждена бÑла покинÑÑÑ ÐµÑ Ð¿Ð¾ ÑÑÐµÐ±Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ðнглии. Тогда Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¾Ð±ÑаÑила Ñвои ÑÑÐ¸Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÐоÑеÑ, наÑодивÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² ваÑÑалÑной завиÑимоÑÑи Ð¾Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¸ ÐанÑжÑÑиÑ. РиÑне 1894 по пÑоÑÑбе коÑейÑкого пÑавиÑелÑÑÑва ÐиÑай напÑавил войÑка в ÐоÑÐµÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐºÑеÑÑÑÑнÑкого воÑÑÑаниÑ. ÐоÑполÑзовавÑиÑÑ ÑÑим пÑедлогом, Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ñакже напÑавила ÑÑда Ñвои войÑка, поÑле Ñего поÑÑебовала Ð¾Ñ ÐºÐ¾ÑейÑкого коÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Â«ÑеÑоÑм», ознаÑавÑÐ¸Ñ ÑакÑиÑеÑки ÑÑÑановление в ÐоÑее ÑпонÑкого конÑÑолÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"РноÑÑ Ð½Ð° 23 иÑÐ»Ñ Ð¿Ñи поддеÑжке ÑпонÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк в СеÑле бÑл оÑганизован пÑавиÑелÑÑÑвеннÑй пеÑевоÑоÑ. Ðовое пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво 27 иÑÐ»Ñ Ð¾Ð±ÑаÑилоÑÑ Ðº Японии Ñ Â«Ð¿ÑоÑÑбой» об изгнании киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк из ÐоÑеи. Ðднако еÑÑ 25 иÑÐ»Ñ ÑпонÑкий ÑÐ»Ð¾Ñ Ñже без обÑÑÐ²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð½Ð°Ñал военнÑе дейÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÑоÑив ÐиÑаÑ; оÑиÑиалÑное обÑÑвление Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ñледовало ÑолÑко 1 авгÑÑÑа 1894. ÐаÑалаÑÑ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¾-киÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð Ñоде Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÑевоÑÑодÑÑво ÑпонÑкой аÑмии и ÑлоÑа пÑивело к кÑÑпнÑм поÑажениÑм ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑÑÑе и на моÑе (под ÐÑаном, иÑÐ»Ñ 1894; под ÐÑенÑÑном, ÑенÑÑбÑÑ 1894; пÑи ЦзÑлÑне, окÑÑбÑÑ 1894).\n" +
"\n" +
"С 24 окÑÑбÑÑ 1894 военнÑе дейÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑеÑли на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¡ÐµÐ²ÐµÑо-ÐоÑÑоÑного ÐиÑаÑ. РмаÑÑÑ 1895 ÑпонÑкие войÑка заÑваÑили ÐÑодÑнÑкий полÑоÑÑÑов, ÐÑйÑайвÑй, ÐнкоÑ, под ÑгÑозой наÑодилÑÑ ÐÑкден.\n" +
"\n" +
"17 апÑÐµÐ»Ñ 1895 в СимоноÑеки пÑедÑÑавиÑели Японии и ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð¿Ð¸Ñали ÑнизиÑелÑнÑй Ð´Ð»Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¡Ð¸Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð¾ÑекÑкий договоÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ТÑойÑÑÐ²ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¸Ð½ÑеÑвенÑиÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"УÑловиÑ, навÑзаннÑе Японией ÐиÑаÑ, пÑивели к Ñак назÑваемой \"ÑÑойÑÑвенной инÑеÑвенÑии\" РоÑÑии, ÐеÑмании и ФÑанÑии - деÑжав, коÑоÑÑе к ÑÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð²Ñемени Ñже поддеÑживали обÑиÑнÑе конÑакÑÑ Ñ ÐиÑаем и поÑÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÑпÑинÑли подпиÑаннÑй Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº наноÑÑÑий ÑÑеÑб Ð¸Ñ Ð¸Ð½ÑеÑеÑам. 23 апÑÐµÐ»Ñ 1895 РоÑÑиÑ, ÐеÑÐ¼Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ ФÑанÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñеменно, но по оÑделÑноÑÑи обÑаÑилиÑÑ Ðº ÑпонÑÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¿ÑавиÑелÑÑÑÐ²Ñ Ñ ÑÑебованием оÑказа Ð¾Ñ Ð°Ð½Ð½ÐµÐºÑии ÐÑодÑнÑкого полÑоÑÑÑова, коÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð³Ð»Ð° Ð±Ñ Ð¿ÑивеÑÑи к ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑпонÑкого конÑÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð´ ÐоÑÑ-ÐÑÑÑÑом, в Ñо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº Ðиколай II, поддеÑживаемÑй западнÑми ÑоÑзниками, имел ÑобÑÑвеннÑе Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ñ Ð½Ð° ÐоÑÑ-ÐÑÑÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ðº незамеÑзаÑÑий поÑÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑии. ÐеÑманÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ñа бÑла наиболее жеÑÑкой, даже оÑкоÑбиÑелÑной Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ð¸.\n" +
"\n" +
"Японии пÑиÑлоÑÑ ÑÑÑÑпиÑÑ. 10 Ð¼Ð°Ñ 1895 года ÑпонÑкое пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво заÑвило о возвÑаÑении ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÐÑодÑнÑкого полÑоÑÑÑова, пÑавда, добивÑиÑÑ ÑвелиÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÐ¼Ð¼Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой конÑÑибÑÑии на 30 миллионов ÑаÑлей.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] УÑпеÑи ÑÑÑÑкой полиÑики в ÐиÑае\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1895 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑедоÑÑавила ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð°Ñм в 150 миллионов ÑÑблей под 4% годовÑÑ. ÐÐ¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ ÑодеÑжал обÑзаÑелÑÑÑво ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ðµ ÑоглаÑаÑÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° иноÑÑÑаннÑй конÑÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð´ Ñвоими ÑинанÑами, еÑли в нÑм не бÑÐ´ÐµÑ ÑÑаÑÑвоваÑÑ Ð Ð¾ÑÑиÑ. РконÑе 1895 года по иниÑиаÑиве ÐиÑÑе бÑл оÑнован РÑÑÑко-ÐиÑайÑкий банк. 3 иÑÐ½Ñ 1896 года в ÐоÑкве бÑл подпиÑан ÑÑÑÑко-киÑайÑкий Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ Ð¾Ð± обоÑониÑелÑном ÑоÑзе пÑоÑив Японии. 8 ÑенÑÑбÑÑ 1896 года Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑким пÑавиÑелÑÑÑвом и РÑÑÑко-ÐиÑайÑким банком бÑл подпиÑан конÑеÑÑионнÑй Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ Ð¾ ÑÑоиÑелÑÑÑве ÐиÑайÑкой ÐоÑÑоÑной железной доÑоги. ÐбÑеÑÑво ÐÐÐРполÑÑало полоÑÑ Ð·ÐµÐ¼Ð»Ð¸ Ð²Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð´Ð¾Ñоги, коÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑеÑодила под его ÑÑиÑдикÑиÑ. РмаÑÑе 1898 года бÑл подпиÑан ÑÑÑÑко-киÑайÑкий Ð´Ð¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ Ð¾Ð± аÑенде РоÑÑией ÐоÑÑ-ÐÑÑÑÑа и ÐÑодÑнÑкого полÑоÑÑÑова.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐаÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¦Ð·ÑоÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ ÐеÑманией\n" +
"\n" +
"РавгÑÑÑе 1897 года ÐилÑгелÑм II поÑеÑил ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°Ñ II в ÐеÑеÑгоÑе и добилÑÑ ÑоглаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑÑÑÑойÑÑво немеÑкой военно-моÑÑкой Ð±Ð°Ð·Ñ Ð² ЦзÑоÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ (в ÑогдаÑнем ваÑианÑе ÑÑанÑкÑипÑии - \"Ðиао-Чао\"), на Ñжном побеÑежÑе ШанÑдÑна. РнаÑале ноÑбÑÑ Ð² ШанÑдÑне киÑайÑами бÑли ÑбиÑÑ Ð³ÐµÑманÑкие миÑÑионеÑÑ. 14 ноÑбÑÑ 1897 года немÑÑ Ð²ÑÑадили деÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð½Ð° побеÑежÑе ЦзÑоÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ Ð¸ заÑваÑили его. 6 маÑÑа 1898 года бÑло подпиÑано геÑмано-киÑайÑкое ÑоглаÑение, по коÑоÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ ÐиÑай аÑендовал ÐеÑмании ЦзÑоÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ ÑÑоком на 99 леÑ. ÐдновÑеменно киÑайÑкое пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво пÑедоÑÑавило ÐеÑмании конÑеÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð° поÑÑÑÐ¾Ð¹ÐºÑ Ð´Ð²ÑÑ Ð¶ÐµÐ»ÐµÐ·Ð½ÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ñог в ШанÑдÑне и ÑÑд гоÑнÑÑ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑеÑÑий в ÑÑой пÑовинÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] СÑо дней ÑеÑоÑм\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐепÑодолжиÑелÑнÑй пеÑиод ÑеÑоÑм наÑалÑÑ 11 иÑÐ½Ñ 1898 Ñ Ð¸Ð·Ð´Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¼Ð°Ð½ÑÑжÑÑÑким импеÑаÑоÑом Цзай ТÑнем (название годов пÑÐ°Ð²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ â ÐÑанÑÑй) Ñказа «Ðб ÑÑÑановлении оÑновной линии гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвенной полиÑики». Цзай ТÑÐ½Ñ Ð¿Ñивлек гÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð´ÑÑ ÑеÑоÑмаÑоÑов â ÑÑеников и единомÑÑленников Ðан ЮвÑÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ ÑазÑабоÑки ÑеÑии Ñказов о ÑеÑоÑмаÑ. РобÑей ÑложноÑÑи бÑло издано ÑвÑÑе 60 Ñказов, коÑоÑÑе каÑалиÑÑ ÑиÑÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð¾Ð±ÑазованиÑ, ÑÑÑоиÑелÑÑÑва железнÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ñог, заводов и ÑабÑик, модеÑнизаÑии ÑелÑÑкого ÑозÑйÑÑва, ÑазвиÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð½ÑÑÑенней и внеÑней ÑоÑговли, ÑеоÑганизаÑии вооÑÑжÑннÑÑ Ñил, ÑиÑÑки гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвенного аппаÑаÑа и Ñ.д. ÐеÑиод ÑадикалÑнÑÑ ÑеÑоÑм оконÑилÑÑ 21 ÑенÑÑбÑÑ Ñого же года, когда вдовÑÑвÑÑÑÐ°Ñ ÐмпеÑаÑÑиÑа ЦÑÑи пÑоизвела двоÑÑовÑй пеÑевоÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¸ оÑменила ÑеÑоÑмÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] XX век\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐокÑеÑÑкое воÑÑÑание\n" +
"\n" +
"Рмае 1900 года в ÐиÑае наÑалоÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑое воÑÑÑание, полÑÑивÑее название бокÑеÑÑкого или ÐÑÑÑÑанÑÑкого воÑÑÑаниÑ. 20 иÑÐ½Ñ Ð² Ðекине бÑл ÑÐ±Ð¸Ñ Ð³ÐµÑманÑкий поÑланник ÐеÑÑелеÑ. ÐÑлед за ÑÑим воÑÑÑавÑими бÑли оÑÐ°Ð¶Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð¿Ð»Ð¾Ð¼Ð°ÑиÑеÑкие миÑÑии, наÑодивÑиеÑÑ Ð² оÑобом кваÑÑале Ðекина. ÐÑло оÑаждено Ñакже здание каÑолиÑеÑкого каÑедÑалÑного ÑобоÑа ÐеÑанг (ÐейÑанг). ÐаÑалиÑÑ Ð¼Ð°ÑÑовÑе ÑбийÑÑва \"иÑÑÑÑанÑми\" киÑайÑев-ÑÑиÑÑиан, в Ñом ÑиÑле бÑло ÑбиÑо 222 пÑавоÑлавнÑÑ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑа. 21 иÑÐ½Ñ 1900 года ÐмпеÑаÑÑиÑа ЦÑÑи обÑÑвила Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ ÐеликобÑиÑании, ÐеÑмании, ÐвÑÑÑо-ÐенгÑии, ФÑанÑии, ÐÑалии, Японии, СШРи РоÑÑии. Ðеликие деÑÐ¶Ð°Ð²Ñ ÑоглаÑилиÑÑ Ð¾ ÑовмеÑÑнÑÑ Ð´ÐµÐ¹ÑÑвиÑÑ Ð¿ÑоÑив воÑÑÑавÑиÑ. ÐлавнокомандÑÑÑим ÑкÑпедиÑионнÑми Ñилами бÑл назнаÑен геÑманÑкий генеÑал ÐалÑдеÑзее. Ðднако, когда он пÑибÑл в ÐиÑай, Ðекин бÑл Ñже оÑвобожден неболÑÑим пеÑедовÑм оÑÑÑдом под командованием ÑÑÑÑкого генеÑала ÐиневиÑа. РÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð·Ð°Ð½Ñла ÐанÑжÑÑиÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] РÑÑÑко-ÑпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"\n" +
"8 ÑевÑÐ°Ð»Ñ 1904 года наÑалаÑÑ Ð ÑÑÑко-ÑпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð° за конÑÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð´ ÐанÑжÑÑией и ÐоÑеей. Ðойна, ÑедÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð±Ñла Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑии неÑдаÑной, по ÐµÑ ÑезÑлÑÑаÑам, РоÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð±Ñла вÑнÑждена ÑÑÑÑпиÑÑ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ð¸ ÐоÑÑ-ÐÑÑÑÑ Ð¸ ÐÑодÑнÑкий полÑоÑÑÑов Ñ ÑаÑÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÑÑоенной к ÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð²Ñемени ÐÐÐÐ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] СмеÑÑÑ Ð¦ÑÑи\n" +
"\n" +
"14 декабÑÑ 1908 года в один Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ ÑмеÑли ÐмпеÑаÑÑиÑа ЦÑÑи и ÐмпеÑаÑÐ¾Ñ ÐÑанÑÑй, коÑоÑого ЦÑÑи Ñанее оÑÑÑÑанила Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи. Ðозможно, ÐÑанÑÑй бÑл оÑÑавлен, Ñак как ЦÑÑи не ÑоÑела, ÑÑÐ¾Ð±Ñ Ð¾Ð½ ÐµÑ Ð¿ÐµÑежил. Ðа пÑеÑÑол взоÑÑл ÐмпеÑаÑÐ¾Ñ ÐÑ Ð, коÑоÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð±Ñло два года. РегенÑом назнаÑен его оÑÐµÑ ÐºÐ½ÑÐ·Ñ Ð§ÑнÑ, однако вÑкоÑе влаÑÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑеÑла к его бÑаÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐннекÑÐ¸Ñ ÐоÑеи\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1910 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð°Ð½Ð½ÐµÐºÑиÑовала ÐоÑеÑ, ÑоÑÑ ÑпонÑкие войÑка Ñам наÑодилиÑÑ Ñ Ð½Ð°Ñала РÑÑÑко-ÑпонÑкой войнÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] РеволÑÑÐ¸Ñ 1911 года и Ñоздание ÐиÑайÑкой РеÑпÑблики\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1911 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð² ÐиÑае наÑалоÑÑ Ð£ÑанÑкое воÑÑÑание. Ðно ÑÑало наÑалом СинÑÑайÑкой ÑеволÑÑии (1911â1913) в ÐиÑае, в ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе коÑоÑой бÑло ÑвеÑгнÑÑа манÑÑжÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð°ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð½ и пÑовозглаÑено Ñоздание ÐиÑайÑкой ÑеÑпÑблики.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑле Ð¿Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð°ÑÑии пÑавиÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ðонголии оÑказалÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð°ÑÑÑÑ ÑеÑпÑблике и оÑделилÑÑ Ð¾Ñ ÐиÑаÑ. 3 ноÑбÑÑ Ð¸Ð¼ бÑло заклÑÑено ÑоглаÑение Ñ Ð Ð¾ÑÑией. ÐÐ½Ð³Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÑполÑзовалаÑÑ Ð²Ð½ÑÑÑенней боÑÑбой в ÐиÑае Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¿ÑевÑаÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¢Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑа в ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð·Ð¾Ð½Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð¸ÑниÑ. Ð¢Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð½ÑлÑÑ Ð½Ð° боÑÑÐ±Ñ Ð¸ заÑÑавил киÑайÑкий гаÑнизон покинÑÑÑ ÑÑÑанÑ. ÐÑе поÑледÑÑÑие попÑÑки киÑайÑев воÑÑÑановиÑÑ Ñам ÑÐ²Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑеÑекалиÑÑ ÐÑиÑанией. РоÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑоглаÑилаÑÑ ÑÑиÑаÑÑ Ð¢Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑ Ð°Ð½Ð³Ð»Ð¸Ð¹Ñкой ÑÑеÑой влиÑниÑ, а ÐÐ½Ð³Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ñизнала ÑÑÑÑкие инÑеÑеÑÑ Ð² незавиÑимой (внеÑней) Ðонголии.\n" +
"\n" +
"12 ÑевÑÐ°Ð»Ñ 1912 года ÐмпеÑаÑÐ¾Ñ ÐÑ Ð Ð¾ÑÑекÑÑ Ð¾Ñ Ð¿ÑеÑÑола. РвлаÑÑи пÑиÑел генеÑал Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ð¹ пÑемÑеÑ-миниÑÑÑ Ð¸ главнокомандÑÑÑий аÑмией. ÐÑкоÑе он бÑл пÑовозглаÑен пÑезиденÑом ÐиÑаÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1913 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿ÑоизоÑла \"ÐÑоÑÐ°Ñ ÑеволÑÑиÑ\". Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ð¹ подавил ÑазÑозненнÑе вÑÑÑÑÐ¿Ð»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² ÑенÑÑалÑнÑÑ Ð¸ ÑжнÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑиÑÑ. Ð ÑÑÑане ÑÑÑанавливаеÑÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð´Ð¸ÐºÑаÑÑÑа Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ñ, оÑноваÑÐµÐ»Ñ Ð³ÑÑппиÑовки бÑйÑнÑÐºÐ¸Ñ (ÑевеÑнÑÑ) милиÑаÑиÑÑов. СÑÐ½Ñ Ð¯ÑÑен вÑнÑжден ÑмигÑиÑоваÑÑ Ð·Ð° гÑаниÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐеÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑле наÑала пеÑвой миÑовой Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкое пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво обÑÑвлÑÐµÑ Ð¾ Ñвоем нейÑÑалиÑеÑе и пÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÑÑÑие деÑÐ¶Ð°Ð²Ñ Ð½Ðµ пеÑеноÑиÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñе дейÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ, в Ñом ÑиÑле и на \"аÑендованнÑе\" деÑжавами киÑайÑкие земли. Ðднако 22 авгÑÑÑа 1914 года Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð¾Ð±ÑÑвила о Ñвоем ÑоÑÑоÑнии Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ñ ÐеÑманией и вÑÑадила 30-ÑÑÑÑÑнÑÑ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÑевеÑнее Циндао - ÑенÑÑа немеÑкой колонии в пÑовинÑии ШанÑдÑн. ÐоÑле двÑÑмеÑÑÑной военной кампании Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð·Ð°ÑваÑила геÑманÑкие Ð²Ð»Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² ШанÑдÑне, а Ñакже ÑаÑпÑоÑÑÑанила Ñвой конÑÑÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð° вÑÑ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑовинÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1915 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкие пÑинÑÑ Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð¾ÑÑÑÑ Ð·Ð° ÑÑÑановленÑе в ÐиÑае монаÑÑии Ñ Ð®Ð°Ð½ÐµÐ¼ Шикаем на импеÑаÑоÑÑком ÑÑоне. РаÑпÑÑкаеÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð°ÑламенÑ. ÐбÑÑвлÑеÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð½Ð°ÑÑиÑ. ЭÑо вÑзÑÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ ÑÑд воÑÑÑаний в пÑовинÑиÑÑ ÐиÑаÑ. ÐезавиÑимоÑÑÑ Ð¾Ñ Ðекина обÑÑвлÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑии ЮнÑнанÑ, ÐÑйÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ Ð¸ ÐÑанÑи. ÐоÑом оÑделÑÑÑÑÑ ÐÑандÑн, ЧжÑÑзÑн, СÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¸ Ð¥ÑнанÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"22 маÑÑа 1916 года ÑмиÑÐ°ÐµÑ Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ð¹.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ЭÑа милиÑаÑиÑÑов\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑле ÑмеÑÑи Ð®Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð¨Ð¸ÐºÐ°Ñ Ð² ÐиÑае наÑали оÑоÑмлÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ÑиÑленнÑе военно-ÑеодалÑнÑе воÑÑÐ¸Ð½Ñ ÑазлиÑнÑÑ Ð¼Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ÑаÑиÑÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³ÑÑппиÑовок. Ðаиболее кÑÑпной бÑла бÑйÑнÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑевеÑнаÑ), деливÑаÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑÑнÑÑнÑÑкÑÑ (манÑÑжÑÑÑкÑÑ) во главе Ñ Ð±ÑвÑим главаÑем Ñайки ÑÑнÑÑзов Чжан Цзолинем, ÑжилийÑкÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ главе Ñ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑалом ФÑн ÐоÑжаном, и анÑÑойÑкÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ главе Ñ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑалом ÐÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð¶Ñем. РпÑовинÑии ШанÑÑи гоÑподÑÑвовал милиÑаÑиÑÑ Ð¯Ð½Ñ Ð¡Ð¸ÑанÑ, заигÑÑвавÑий Ñ Ð±ÑйÑнÑкой гÑÑппиÑовкой, а в пÑовинÑии ШÑнÑÑи - генеÑал ЧÑÐ½Ñ Ð¨ÑÑанÑ. ÐагеÑÑ Ñго-западнÑÑ Ð¼Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ÑаÑиÑÑов ÑоÑÑоÑл из двÑÑ ÐºÑÑпнÑÑ Ð³ÑÑппиÑовок: ÑнÑнанÑÑкой во главе Ñ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑалом Тан ЦзиÑо, и гÑанÑийÑкой во главе Ñ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑалом ÐÑ ÐÑнÑином.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ðод конÑÑолем ÑÑнÑÑнÑÑкой гÑÑппиÑовки наÑодилиÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑии Ð¥ÑйлÑнÑзÑн, ÐиÑин и ФÑнÑÑнÑ, под конÑÑолем ÑжилийÑкой - ШанÑдÑн, ЦзÑнÑÑ, ЧжÑÑзÑн, ФÑÑзÑнÑ, ЦзÑнÑи, Ð¥ÑнанÑ, Ð¥ÑбÑй и ÑаÑÑÑ Ð§Ð¶Ð¸Ð»Ð¸. ФÑнÑÑнÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¸ анÑÑойÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ»Ð¸ÐºÐ¸ ÑинанÑиÑовалиÑÑ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸ÐµÐ¹, ÑжилийÑÐºÐ°Ñ - Ðнглией и СШÐ. Ðи ЮанÑÑÑн бÑл ÑÑавленником Ñго-западнÑÑ Ð¼Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ÑаÑиÑÑов. ÐиÑе-пÑÐµÐ·Ð¸Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑал ФÑн ÐоÑжан оÑиенÑиÑовалÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÐÐ½Ð³Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ СШÐ, а пÑемÑеÑ-миниÑÑÑ Ð³ÐµÐ½ÐµÑал ÐÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð¶Ñй деÑжалÑÑ Ð¿ÑоÑпонÑкого напÑавлениÑ. Ð 1917 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð°Ñала пÑедоÑÑавлÑÑÑ ÐÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¦Ð¸Ð¶ÑÑ ÐºÑÑпнÑе займÑ, полÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð·Ð° Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ñе новÑе и новÑе ÑÑÑÑпки, в Ñом ÑиÑле конÑеÑÑии в ÐанÑÑжÑÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] Ðобеда ÐоминÑдана\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐаÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÐоминÑдан бÑла Ñоздана в 1912 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð² пÑовинÑии ÐÑанÑжоÑ. ÐÑимеÑно в Ñоже вÑемÑ, в 1921 г., бÑла Ñоздана и ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¼ÑниÑÑиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¿Ð°ÑÑиÑ, малоÑиÑÐ»ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð¸ не полÑзовавÑаÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÐ¾Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑиод оÑобой попÑлÑÑноÑÑÑÑ. 8 ÑенÑÑбÑÑ 1923 в ÐиÑай по пÑоÑÑбе СÑÐ½Ñ Ð¯ÑÑена, коÑоÑÑй пÑоÑил пÑиÑлаÑÑ ÐµÐ¼Ñ Ñеловека Ñ ÐºÐ¾ÑоÑÑм он мог Ð±Ñ Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾ÑиÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾-английÑки без пеÑеводÑика, пÑибÑл Ð°Ð³ÐµÐ½Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¸Ð½ÑеÑна Ð.Ð.ÐоÑодин, ÑÑавÑий полиÑиÑеÑким ÑовеÑником ЦÐÐ ÐоминÑдана и ÑовеÑником СÑÐ½Ñ Ð¯ÑÑена. Ðн оÑганизовал ÑоÑÑÑдниÑеÑÑво Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ ÐоминÑданом и ÐÐÐ. 20 ÑнваÑÑ 1924 г. пÑоÑÐ¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ I ÐÑекиÑайÑкий ÑÑезд ÐоминÑдана в ÐÑанÑжоÑ. Ðа ÑÑезде бÑл пÑинÑÑ ÐºÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑоÑз Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкими коммÑниÑÑами и СССР. 16 иÑÐ½Ñ ÑÑÑеждена ÐÐ¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð°ÐºÐ°Ð´ÐµÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÐÐ°Ð¼Ð¿Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´ ÑÑководÑÑвом Чан ÐайÑи. РпеÑвÑй Ð½Ð°Ð±Ð¾Ñ Ð±Ñло заÑиÑлено 400, во вÑоÑой - 500, в ÑÑеÑий - 800 и ÑеÑвеÑÑÑй - около 2600 ÑлÑÑаÑелей; пÑи Ñколе бÑло Ñоздано два ÑÑебнÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÐºÐ°. Ð Ð°ÐºÐ°Ð´ÐµÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÐÐ°Ð¼Ð¿Ñ Ð¿ÑибÑла болÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð³ÑÑппа ÑовеÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½ÑÑ ÑовеÑников. РокÑÑбÑе 1924 г. в ÐÑанÑÐ¶Ð¾Ñ Ð½Ð° должноÑÑÑ Ð³Ð»Ð°Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ военного ÑовеÑника пÑибÑл ÐаÑилий ÐонÑÑанÑÐ¸Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ ÐлÑÑеÑ.\n" +
"РмаÑÑе 1926 Чан ÐайÑи оÑÑÑеÑÑвил в ÐанÑоне военнÑй пеÑевоÑоÑ, изгнал из гоÑода коммÑниÑÑов, а ÑпÑÑÑÑ ÑÑи меÑÑÑа бÑл избÑан пÑедÑедаÑелем ÐоминÑдана и главнокомандÑÑÑим вооÑÑженнÑми войÑками. ÐобивÑиÑÑ Ð²ÑÑокой влаÑÑи, Чан ÐайÑи пÑиглаÑил немеÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑовеÑников во главе бÑвÑим генеÑалом ÑейÑÑвеÑа Ñон СекÑом.\n" +
"РкаÑеÑÑве ÑовеÑников Ñ Ð§Ð°Ð½ ÐайÑи дейÑÑвовали оÑиÑеÑÑ ÐеÑмании:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * полковник Ð.ÐаÑÑÑ (дÑÑг ÐиÑлеÑа и ÑÑеник ÐÑдендоÑÑа)\n" +
"    * наÑиÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð´Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÐºÐ¾Ð²Ð½Ð¸Ðº ÐÑибелÑ\n" +
"    * генеÑал-лейÑÐµÐ½Ð°Ð½Ñ ÐеÑÑелÑ\n" +
"    * генеÑал ФалÑкенÑаÑзен\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоминÑдановÑÑ ÑÑаÑаÑелÑно пеÑенимали опÑÑ Ð½Ð°ÑиÑÑов по Ð½Ð°Ð²ÐµÐ´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÑдка в ÑÑÑане. ÐиÑайÑкие оÑиÑеÑÑ Ð² оÑганизованном поÑÑдке напÑавлÑлиÑÑ Ð½Ð° обÑÑение в ÐеÑманиÑ.\n" +
"Ð 1926 ÐаÑионалÑно-ÑеволÑÑÐ¸Ð¾Ð½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð§Ð°Ð½ ÐайÑи пÑедпÑинÑла Ñак назÑваемÑй Ðеликий СевеÑнÑй поÑод. Ð ÑеÑение ÑеÑÑи меÑÑÑев непÑеÑÑвнÑÑ Ð±Ð¾ÐµÐ² Ð¾Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи меÑÑнÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½ÑÑ Ð¿ÑавиÑелей бÑли оÑÐ²Ð¾Ð±Ð¾Ð¶Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ ÑенÑÑалÑнÑе ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð¾Ð½Ñ ÐиÑаÑ.\n" +
"РнаÑале 1927 Чан ÐайÑи поÑел на оÑкÑÑÑÑй Ñазвал единого ÑÑонÑа ÐÐРи ÐÐÐ: его войÑка наÑали ÑазоÑÑжение ÑанÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑабоÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¾ÑÑÑдов и дÑÑжин, наÑалиÑÑ Ð¼Ð°ÑÑовÑе аÑеÑÑÑ Ð¸ казни пÑоÑÑоÑзнÑÑ Ð´ÐµÑÑелей и коммÑниÑÑов. РоÑÐ²ÐµÑ Ð½Ð° ÑÑо коммÑниÑÑÑ Ð¾Ñганизовали 1 авгÑÑÑа в гоÑоде ÐанÑÑан воÑÑÑание ÑаÑÑи гоминÑдановÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк, воÑедÑее в иÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÐºÐ°Ðº \"ÐанÑÑанÑкое воÑÑÑание\".\n" +
"РдекабÑе 1927 бÑло поднÑÑо коммÑниÑÑиÑеÑкое воÑÑÑание в ÐанÑоне, коÑоÑое гоминÑдановÑÑ Ð¶ÐµÑÑоÑайÑим обÑазом подавили поÑле ÑеÑÑÑÐµÑ Ð´Ð½ÐµÐ¹ кÑовопÑолиÑнÑÑ Ð±Ð¾ÐµÐ².\n" +
"ÐоÑле неÑколÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½ÑÑ Ð¾Ð¿ÐµÑаÑий к 1927 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñка ÐоминÑдана конÑÑолиÑовали болÑÑÑÑ ÑаÑÑÑ ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐиÑаÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ЯпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐºÑпаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ ÐÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐÑенÑÑ 1931 Ð¯Ð¿Ð¾Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð°Ð¿Ð°Ð»Ð° на ÐиÑай. 18 ÑенÑÑбÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ñле ÑеÑии пÑовокаÑий ÑпонÑÑ Ð¿ÐµÑеÑли в наÑÑÑпление, за коÑоÑкое оккÑпиÑовав вÑÑ ÐанÑжÑÑиÑ. РмаÑÑе 1932 здеÑÑ Ð±Ñло пÑовозглаÑено пÑоÑпонÑкое маÑионеÑоÑное гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво ÐанÑÑжоÑ-Ðо, коÑоÑое возглавил ÐÑ Ð â поÑледний оÑпÑÑÑк манÑÑжÑÑÑкой динаÑÑии Цин, ÑвеÑгнÑÑой в Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¡Ð¸Ð½ÑÑайÑкой ÑеволÑÑии.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð ÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑложнÑÑ ÑÑловиÑÑ Ð§Ð°Ð½ ÐайÑи бÑл вÑнÑжден боÑоÑÑÑÑ Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñеменно Ñ ÑÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð²Ñагами: внеÑней ÑпонÑкой агÑеÑÑией, ÑпоÑадиÑеÑкими бÑнÑами оÑделÑнÑÑ Ð¼Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ÑаÑиÑÑов на меÑÑаÑ, и вооÑÑжÑннÑми Ñилами ÐÐÐ, пÑеÑендовавÑими на заÑÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð»Ð°ÑÑи в ÑÑÑане. Ðн вÑбÑал полиÑÐ¸ÐºÑ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¿ÑомиÑÑа Ñ ÑпонÑами, Ñ Ð¼Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ÑаÑиÑÑами вÑл дела в завиÑимоÑÑи Ð¾Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÐºÑеÑнÑÑ Ð¾Ð±ÑÑоÑÑелÑÑÑв, Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¼ÑниÑÑами же никакой компÑомиÑÑ Ð±Ñл невозможен. Ð 1934 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¾ÑновнÑе ÑÐ¸Ð»Ñ ÐÐРбÑли блокиÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð² пÑовинÑии ЦзÑнÑи. Ð ÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑложнÑÑ ÑÑловиÑÑ ÑÑководÑÑво ÐÐÐ ÑÑмело оÑганизоваÑÑ Ð¿ÑоÑÑв, и поÑле многомеÑÑÑного маÑÑа пÑивело войÑка на СевеÑо-Ðапад ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð² Ñ.н. \"оÑобÑй Ñайон\" Ñ ÑенÑÑом в гоÑоде ЯнÑанÑ; ÑÑи ÑобÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ñли в иÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐÐРкак \"Ðеликий поÑод\". Чан ÐайÑи планиÑовал пÑодолжаÑÑ Ð±Ð¾ÑÑÐ±Ñ Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¼ÑниÑÑами и Ñам, но ÑÑÑ Ð²Ð·Ð±ÑнÑовалÑÑ ÑÑд его генеÑалов, ÑÑиÑавÑÐ¸Ñ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐµ пÑиоÑиÑеÑной задаÑей пÑимиÑение Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¼ÑниÑÑами и ÑовмеÑÑнÑÑ Ð±Ð¾ÑÑÐ±Ñ Ñ ÑпонÑкой агÑеÑÑией. Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе \"СианÑÑкого инÑиденÑа\" бÑло подпиÑано ÑоглаÑение о Ñоздании единого ÑÑонÑа Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ ÐÐРи ÐоминÑданом.\n" +
"\n" +
"7 иÑÐ»Ñ 1937 конÑликÑом Ñ Ð¼Ð¾ÑÑа ÐÑгоÑÑÑо недалеко Ð¾Ñ Ðекина наÑалаÑÑ Â«Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑаÑ» война. С ÑÑого моменÑа, по Ð¼Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¸ÑÑоÑиков, наÑинаеÑÑÑ ÐÑоÑÐ°Ñ Ð¼Ð¸ÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°.\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"   ЭÑÐ¾Ñ Ñаздел не завеÑÑÑн. ÐÑ Ð¼Ð¾Ð¶ÐµÑе помоÑÑ Ð¿ÑоекÑÑ, иÑпÑавив и дополнив его.\n" +
"ЯпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐºÑпаÑÐ¸Ñ (1940)\n" +
"ЯпонÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð¾ÐºÐºÑпаÑÐ¸Ñ (1940)\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] Создание ÐиÑайÑкой ÐаÑодной РеÑпÑблики\n" +
"\n" +
"РазгÑом милиÑаÑиÑÑÑкой Японии в авгÑÑÑе-ÑенÑÑбÑе 1945 завеÑÑил ÐÑоÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð¸ÑовÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ, оÑвободив Ð¾Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÑабоÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ ÐзиаÑÑко-ТиÑоокеанÑкого Ñегиона. Ð ÐиÑае Ñла ожеÑÑоÑÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð³ÑажданÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°.\n" +
"СовеÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐÑаÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÐÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð½Ð¾ÑÑÑÑ Ð¾ÐºÐºÑпиÑовала ÐанÑжÑÑиÑ, пÑинÑв капиÑÑлÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑакÑиÑеÑки Ñ Ð²Ñей ÑпонÑкой ÐванÑÑнÑкой аÑмии. Ð ÑÐ¾Ð¼Ñ Ð²Ñемени на ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии ÐанÑжÑÑии дейÑÑвовали лиÑÑ ÑазÑозненнÑе паÑÑизанÑкие оÑÑÑÐ´Ñ Ð¸ ÑазведгÑÑÐ¿Ð¿Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð°ÑÑизан.\n" +
"Ð ÑенÑÑбÑе 1945 наÑала оÑÑÑеÑÑвлÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¼Ð°ÑÑÐ¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑебÑоÑка вооÑÑженнÑÑ Ñил ÐÐРиз ÑевеÑного и ÐоÑÑоÑного ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑевеÑо-воÑÑок ÑÑÑанÑ. РноÑбÑÑ ÑÑда пеÑеÑли около 100 ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð±Ð¾Ð¹Ñов 8-ой и 4-ой аÑмий. Ðз ÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑаÑÑей, паÑÑизанÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑоÑмиÑований и меÑÑнÑÑ Ð¶Ð¸Ñелей бÑла ÑÑоÑмиÑована ÐбÑÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð´ÐµÐ¼Ð¾ÐºÑаÑиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ (ÐÐÐ) СевеÑо-ÐоÑÑока, коÑоÑÐ°Ñ ÑÑала коÑÑÑком ÐаÑодно-оÑвободиÑелÑной аÑмии ÐиÑаÑ.\n" +
"СовеÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð°ÑодилаÑÑ Ð² ÐанÑжÑÑии вплоÑÑ Ð´Ð¾ Ð¼Ð°Ñ 1946. Ðа ÑÑо вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑовеÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑÑоÑона помогла киÑайÑким коммÑниÑÑам оÑганизоваÑÑ, обÑÑиÑÑ Ð¸ вооÑÑжиÑÑ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ñе киÑайÑкие войÑка. Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе, когда гоминÑдановÑкие войÑка наÑали в апÑеле 1946 вÑодиÑÑ Ð² ÐанÑжÑÑиÑ, они, к ÑÐ²Ð¾ÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑдивлениÑ, обнаÑÑжили Ñам не ÑазÑозненнÑе паÑÑизанÑкие оÑÑÑдÑ, а ÑовÑеменнÑÑ Ð´Ð¸ÑÑиплиниÑованнÑÑ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¼ÑниÑÑов, вовÑе не намеÑевавÑÑÑÑÑ ÑамоÑаÑпÑÑкаÑÑÑÑ.\n" +
"СиÑÑаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð² ÐанÑжÑÑии ÑÑала Ñоком и Ð´Ð»Ñ Ðелого дома. ÐеÑвÑй оÑÑÑд вооÑÑженнÑÑ Ñил СШРв ÑоÑÑаве двÑÑ Ð´Ð¸Ð²Ð¸Ð·Ð¸Ð¹ моÑÑкой пеÑоÑÑ Ð²ÑÑадилÑÑ Ð² ÐиÑае в Ñайоне ТÑнÑÑÐ·Ð¸Ð½Ñ ÐµÑе 30 ÑенÑÑбÑÑ 1945. РоÑени в ÐиÑае наÑодилоÑÑ Ñже ÑвÑÑе 100 ÑÑÑÑÑ Ð°Ð¼ÐµÑиканÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾ÑлÑжаÑиÑ.\n" +
"ÐмеÑиканÑкие ÑкÑпедиÑионнÑе войÑка, главнÑм обÑазом ÑаÑÑи моÑÑкой пеÑоÑÑ, ÑÑаÑалиÑÑ Ð½Ðµ вмеÑиваÑÑÑÑ Ð² оÑноÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¼ÐµÐ¶Ð´Ñ ÐÐРи ÐÐÐ. Ðднако они акÑивно взаимодейÑÑвовали Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¾ÑÑженнÑми Ñилами легиÑимного киÑайÑкого пÑавиÑелÑÑÑва - войÑками ÐоминÑдана, пÑежде вÑего в пÑиеме капиÑÑлÑÑии ÑпонÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк в СевеÑном и ЦенÑÑалÑном ÐиÑае, а Ñакже в поддеÑжании поÑÑдка и оÑÑане ÑазлиÑнÑÑ Ð²Ð°Ð¶Ð½ÑÑ Ð¾Ð±ÑекÑов в киÑайÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑодаÑ.\n" +
"С Ñамого наÑала командование войÑк ÐÐРдопÑÑÑило ÑÑÑаÑегиÑеÑкÑÑ Ð¾ÑибкÑ: неÑмоÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑÑпеÑи пеÑвÑÑ ÑÑолкновений Ñ ÐÐРв ÐанÑжÑÑии, военнÑе дейÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð² СевеÑо-ÐоÑÑоÑном ÐиÑае не бÑли Ð´Ð¾Ð²ÐµÐ´ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð´Ð¾ конÑа, ÐÐРнапÑавил Ñвои ÑÑÐ¸Ð»Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ðµ на боÑÑÐ±Ñ Ñ ÑегÑлÑÑнÑми войÑками ÐÐÐ, а на ÑниÑÑожение паÑÑизанÑкого Ð´Ð²Ð¸Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸ паÑÑизанÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð±Ð°Ð· в ЦенÑÑалÑном, ÐоÑÑоÑном и СевеÑном ÐиÑае.\n" +
"УкÑепивÑиÑÑ Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð¼Ð¾ÑÑÑ ÑовеÑÑкой ÑÑоÑонÑ, пÑи поддеÑжке меÑÑного наÑелениÑ, войÑка Ðао ЦзÑдÑна к оÑени 1948 доÑÑигли ÑиÑленноÑÑи в 600 ÑÑÑÑÑ Ñеловек. С 1 ноÑбÑÑ ÐÐÐ ÑÑала именоваÑÑÑÑ 4-й Ðолевой аÑмией. возглавили ее ÐÐ¸Ð½Ñ ÐÑо.\n" +
"РноÑбÑе 1948 4-Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÐµÐ²Ð°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÐµÑеÑла к ÑеÑиÑелÑнÑм боевÑм дейÑÑвиÑм пÑоÑив гоминÑдановÑев. Ðа коÑоÑкие ÑÑоки бÑло ÑазбиÑо 52 дивизии Чан ÐайÑи, еÑе 26 дивизий, обÑÑеннÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñми инÑÑÑÑкÑоÑами СШÐ, пеÑеÑли на ÑÑоÑÐ¾Ð½Ñ ÐÐÐ. РнаÑале 1949 аÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ñла в СевеÑнÑй ÐиÑай, где обÑединилаÑÑ Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñками 8-й аÑмии ÐÐÐ. 15 ÑнваÑÑ Ð±Ñл взÑÑ Ð¢ÑнÑÑзинÑ, 22 ÑнваÑÑ - Ðекин.\n" +
"РвеÑне 1949 вооÑÑженнÑе ÑÐ¸Ð»Ñ ÐÐРоÑвободили Ð¾Ñ Ð³Ð¾Ð¼Ð¸Ð½ÑдановÑев веÑÑ ÐиÑай ÑевеÑнее Ñеки ЯнÑÐ·Ñ Ð¸ воÑÑоÑнее пÑовинÑии ÐанÑÑÑ. РконÑÑ Ð³ÑажданÑкой Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ ÐаÑодно-оÑвободиÑелÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÑедÑÑавлÑла Ñобой моÑнÑÑ 4-миллионÑÑ Ð°ÑмиÑ, кÑÑпнейÑÑÑ Ð² Ðзии.\n" +
"24 апÑÐµÐ»Ñ 1949 войÑка ÐÐРпод командованием маÑÑала ÐÑ ÐоÑÑна вÑÑÑпили в ÑÑолиÑÑ Ð³Ð¾Ð¼Ð¸Ð½ÑдановÑкого ÐиÑÐ°Ñ - гоÑод Ðанкин. Само гоминÑдановÑкое пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво еÑе в ÑевÑале пеÑееÑало на Ñг ÑÑÑанÑ, в ÐанÑон, а заÑем вмеÑÑе Ñ Ð¾ÑÑаÑками веÑнÑÑ ÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ñк - бежало на оÑÑÑов ТайванÑ.\n" +
"РконÑе года ÐаÑодно-оÑвободиÑелÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð°ÑÐ¼Ð¸Ñ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÑниÑÑожила вÑе оÑновнÑе гÑÑппиÑовки ÐоминÑдана на конÑиненÑе, победоноÑно завеÑÑив Ñем ÑамÑм ÑÑеÑÑÑ Ð³ÑажданÑкÑÑ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ñ Ð² ÐиÑае.\n" +
"1 окÑÑбÑÑ 1949 г. в Ðекине бÑла пÑовозглаÑена ÐиÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÐаÑÐ¾Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð ÐµÑпÑблика.\n" +
"Ðа ÑледÑÑÑий же Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¡Ð¾Ð²ÐµÑÑкий СоÑз пеÑвÑм пÑизнал ÐÐР и заклÑÑил Ñ Ð½ÐµÐ¹ ÐÐ¾Ð³Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ñ Ð¾ дÑÑжбе, ÑоÑзе и взаимной помоÑи. Таким обÑазом, в конÑе 1949 года ÑодилÑÑ ÑовеÑÑко-киÑайÑкий «монолиÑ» - ÑÐ¾Ñ ÑамÑй, коÑоÑÑй на многие Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ ÑÑал коÑмаÑом Ð´Ð»Ñ Ðапада.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐÑлÑÑÑÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑеволÑÑиÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð 1966 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿ÑедÑедаÑелем ÐÐÐ Ðао ЦзÑдÑном бÑла наÑаÑа кÑлÑÑÑÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑеволÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð´Ð»Ñ ÑÑвеÑÐ¶Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¼Ð°Ð¾Ð¸Ð·Ð¼Ð° в каÑеÑÑве единÑÑвенной гоÑÑдаÑÑÑвенной идеологии и ÑниÑÑÐ¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð¸ÑиÑеÑкой оппозиÑии. ÐÑло оÑганизовано маÑÑовое ополÑение молодÑжи, назÑвавÑееÑÑ Â«ÐºÑаÑногваÑдейÑÑ». ÐÑаÑногваÑдейÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð½ÑлиÑÑ Ð¿ÑеÑледованием «конÑÑеÑеволÑÑионеÑов» из ÑиÑла аппаÑаÑа ÐÐÐ, инÑеллигенÑии и вообÑе вÑеÑ, кÑо мог им не понÑавиÑÑÑÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ЭкономиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð»Ð¸Ð±ÐµÑализаÑиÑ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐоÑле Ð¿Ð°Ð´ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ \"Ð±Ð°Ð½Ð´Ñ ÑеÑÑÑеÑ\" влаÑÑÑ Ð² ÑÑÑане взÑли ÑеÑоÑмаÑоÑÑ ÐÑн СÑопин и Ð¥Ñ Ð¯Ð¾Ð±Ð°Ð½, коÑоÑÑе в конÑе 1978 года пÑовозглаÑили на 3-м пленÑме ЦРÐÐÐ 11-го ÑозÑва полиÑÐ¸ÐºÑ \"ÑеÑоÑм и оÑкÑÑÑоÑÑи\". РеалÑнÑй ÑÑаÑÑ \"ЭкономиÑеÑкой ÑеÑоÑме\" бÑл дан на XII ÑÑезде ÐÐÐ (1982 г.). Ðа XIII ÑÑезде ÐÐÐ (1987 г.) бÑло дано подÑобное Ñолкование ÑеоÑии наÑалÑного ÑÑапа ÑоÑиализма, ÑоглаÑно коÑоÑой ÑоÑиалиÑÑиÑеÑкий ÑÑÑой и ÑоÑиалиÑÑиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑкономиÑеÑÐºÐ°Ñ ÑиÑÑема - ÑазнÑе веÑи, Ñ.е. ÑоÑиалиÑÑиÑеÑкий полиÑиÑеÑкий Ñежим не подÑазÑÐ¼ÐµÐ²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð±ÐµÐ·ÑÑловной плановой ÑенÑÑализаÑии вÑей Ñкономики, а позволÑÐµÑ Ð¸ÑполÑзоваÑÑ Ð¸ ÑÑноÑнÑе меÑанизмÑ, оÑобенно в паÑе \"гоÑÑдаÑÑÑво-пÑедпÑиÑÑие\". Ðа XIV ÑÑезде ÐÐÐ (1992 г.) бÑл пÑовозглаÑен кÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° поÑÑÑоение ÑоÑиалиÑÑиÑеÑкой ÑÑноÑной ÑкономиÑеÑкой ÑиÑÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ñ ÐºÐ¸ÑайÑкой ÑпеÑиÑикой. Ðанное изменение идеологии ÑоÑоÑо иллÑÑÑÑиÑÑÐµÑ Ð²ÑÑказÑваение Ð.СÑопина: \"Ðеважно какого ÑвеÑа коÑка - главное, ÑÑÐ¾Ð±Ñ Ð»Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ð»Ð° мÑÑей\".\n" +
"\n" +
"ФакÑиÑеÑки введение \"ЭкономиÑеÑкой ÑеÑоÑмÑ\" ознаÑало наÑÑоÑÑÑÑ \"ÑеволÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑвеÑÑÑ\", заклÑÑавÑÑÑÑÑ Ð² поÑÑепенном и ÑаÑÑиÑном ÑвоÑаÑивании ÑоÑалиÑаÑной ÑÑалинÑко-маоиÑÑÑкой модели жеÑÑко ÑенÑÑализованной Ñкономики и пеÑеводе ÑаÑÑи оÑÑаÑлей наÑодного ÑозÑйÑÑва на ÑÑноÑнÑе ÑелÑÑÑ, но пÑи полноÑÑÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ¸Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð¾Ð¹ полиÑиÑеÑкой надÑÑÑойке в лиÑе монополÑно ÑпÑавлÑÑÑей ÑÑÑаной ÐÐÐ. РконÑÑ 70-Ñ Ð¸ÑÑоÑиÑеÑки ÑÐ»Ð°Ð±Ð°Ñ Ñкономика ÐиÑÐ°Ñ \"лежала\" из-за негаÑивнÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾ÑледÑÑвий аванÑÑÑиÑÑиÑеÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð¼Ð¿Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ð¹ Ðао ЦзедÑна - \"болÑÑого ÑкаÑка\" и \"кÑлÑÑÑÑной ÑеволÑÑии\". ÐÑ ÑиÑÑемаÑиÑеÑкого голода в ÐиÑае ежегодно ÑÑÑадали пÑакÑиÑеÑки вÑе 800 млн. кÑеÑÑÑÑн (из миллиаÑдного наÑелениÑ), ÑÑÑана занимала поÑледние меÑÑа в миÑе по ÑÑÐ¾Ð²Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÑоизводÑÑва ÑоваÑов и пÑодоволÑÑÑÐ²Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° дÑÑÑ Ð½Ð°ÑелениÑ. ÐÐ»Ñ ÑеÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¿ÑÐ¾Ð±Ð»ÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð³Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð´Ð° необÑодимо бÑло обеÑпеÑиÑÑ ÑÑабилÑнÑй валовÑй ÑÐ±Ð¾Ñ Ð·ÐµÑна в обÑеме не менее 400 млн. Ñ Ð² год. ÐгÑаÑнÑе пÑеобÑÐ°Ð·Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ð±Ñли ÑвÑÐ·Ð°Ð½Ñ Ñ Ð¾Ñменой наÑодной коммÑÐ½Ñ Ð¸ заменой ее ÑемейнÑм подÑÑдом и единой коллекÑивной ÑобÑÑвенноÑÑÑÑ. ÐÑакÑиÑеÑки вÑе 800 млн. кÑеÑÑÑÑн полÑÑили пÑаво на Ñвободное ÑелÑÑкоÑозÑйÑÑвенное пÑоизводÑÑво. РоÑновном бÑла оÑменена ÑиÑÑема гоÑзагоÑовок, оÑÐ²Ð¾Ð±Ð¾Ð¶Ð´ÐµÐ½Ñ ÑÐµÐ½Ñ Ð½Ð° болÑÑинÑÑво видов ÑелÑÑкоÑозÑйÑÑвенной пÑодÑкÑии. РезÑлÑÑаÑом ÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¼ÐµÑ ÑÑал вÑÑод агÑаÑного ÑекÑоÑа из заÑÑоÑ, вÑÑÑпление кÑеÑÑÑÑнÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑозÑйÑÑв на пÑÑÑ ÑпеÑиализаÑии и повÑÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑоваÑноÑÑи. ÐÑганизованнÑе в деÑевне по иниÑиаÑиве кÑеÑÑÑÑн волоÑÑно-поÑелковÑе пÑедпÑиÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð·Ð²Ð¾Ð»Ð¸Ð»Ð¸ обеÑпеÑиÑÑ ÑоÑÑ Ð·Ð°Ð½ÑÑоÑÑи (120 млн. Ñел.) и повÑÑиÑÑ Ð¶Ð¸Ð·Ð½ÐµÐ½Ð½Ñй ÑÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ñ ÐºÑеÑÑÑÑн.ÐадаÑа обеÑпеÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð·ÐµÑном бÑла в оÑновном ÑеÑена в 80-Ñ. ÐоÑÑепенно в деÑевне ÑÑоÑмиÑовалаÑÑ Ð´Ð²ÑÑÑÐ»Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑозÑйÑÑÐ²ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑиÑÑема на оÑнове ÑоÑеÑÐ°Ð½Ð¸Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð»ÐµÐºÑивной ÑобÑÑвенноÑÑи и Ñемейного подÑÑда.\n" +
"\n" +
"РоблаÑÑи пÑомÑÑленной полиÑики пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво ÐиÑаÑ, наÑÐ¸Ð½Ð°Ñ Ñ 1984 года Ñделало ÑÐ¿Ð¾Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÑепÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð»Ð°Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¾Ð¹ ÑоваÑной Ñкономики. Ðа пÑакÑике ÑÑо ознаÑало пеÑевод ÑаÑÑи оÑделÑнÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑодÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð¿ÑедпÑиÑÑий на ÑамоокÑпаемоÑÑÑ. Ðозже пÑавиÑелÑÑÑво ÑазÑеÑило и подÑазделениÑм аÑмии ÐиÑÐ°Ñ (ÐÐÐÐ) пеÑейÑи на ÑамообеÑпеÑение и занимаÑÑÑÑ ÑвободнÑм пÑедпÑинимаÑелÑÑÑвом. Ð ÑооÑвеÑÑÑвии Ñ Ð¿ÑинÑипом \"ЧжÑа Ðа Фан СÑо\" (\"деÑжаÑÑ Ð² ÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð±Ð¾Ð»ÑÑие пÑедпÑиÑÑиÑ, оÑпÑÑÑиÑÑ Ð¼Ð°Ð»ÐµÐ½Ñкие\") многие мелкие гоÑпÑедпÑиÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÑÑили пÑаво измениÑÑ Ð½Ðµ ÑолÑко меÑанизм ÑозÑйÑÑвованиÑ, но и ÑоÑÐ¼Ñ ÑобÑÑвенноÑÑи. ЭÑо позволило гоÑÑдаÑÑÑÐ²Ñ ÑоÑÑедоÑоÑиÑÑ ÑÐ¸Ð»Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑлÑÑÑении Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð¶ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÐºÑÑпнÑÑ Ð¿ÑедпÑиÑÑий. ЧеÑÑÑе гоÑода - ШÑнÑÑжÑнÑ, ЧжÑÑай, СÑмÑнÑ, ШанÑÑÐ¾Ñ - бÑли обÑÑÐ²Ð»ÐµÐ½Ñ ÑпеÑиалÑнÑми ÑкономиÑеÑкими зонами. ÐÑлед за ними 14 пÑимоÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ Ð³Ð¾Ñодов, ÑеÑÑÑе Ñегиона в ÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ñек ЯнÑÐ·Ñ Ð¸ ЧжÑÑзÑн, Ñго-воÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ ÑаÑÑÑ Ð¿ÑовинÑии ФÑÑзÑÐ½Ñ Ð¸ Ñегион в Ñайоне ÐаÑайÑкого залива ÑÑали оÑкÑÑÑÑми ÑкономиÑеÑкими зонами. Ðа оÑÑÑове Ð¥Ð°Ð¹Ð½Ð°Ð½Ñ Ð±Ñла Ñоздана Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð¾Ð¸Ð¼ÐµÐ½Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ñ Ð¿ÑовинÑиÑ, а Ñам он ÑÑал ÑпеÑиалÑной ÑкономиÑеÑкой зоной. ÐÑе ÑÑи гоÑода и ÑÐ°Ð¹Ð¾Ð½Ñ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»ÑÑили ÑазлиÑнÑе инвеÑÑиÑионнÑе и налоговÑе лÑгоÑÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¿ÑивлеÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð¸Ð½Ð¾ÑÑÑанного капиÑала и ÑеÑнологий, заимÑÑÐ²Ð¾Ð²Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ñ Ñ Ð¸Ð½Ð¾ÑÑÑаннÑÑ Ð¿Ð°ÑÑнеÑов ÑÑÑекÑивнÑÑ Ð¼ÐµÑодов ÑпÑавлениÑ. ÐÑÑÑÑое ÑазвиÑие Ð¸Ñ Ñкономики ÑпоÑобÑÑвовало ÑÑÑекÑÐ¸Ð²Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ ÑоÑÑÑ Ð² маÑÑÑабе ÑÑÑанÑ. ХаÑакÑеÑно, ÑÑо знаÑиÑелÑнÑÑ Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð²Ð²Ð¾Ð·Ð¸Ð¼Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ капиÑала на наÑалÑном ÑÑапе обеÑпеÑила киÑайÑÐºÐ°Ñ Ð´Ð¸Ð°ÑпоÑа (ÑÑаÑÑо), пÑоживаÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð¿ÑеимÑÑеÑÑвенно в ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ð°Ñ ÑиÑоокеанÑкого баÑÑейна (оÑновнÑе Ð·Ð¾Ð½Ñ ÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ð¿Ð°ÐºÑного пÑоживаниÑ: Ðонконг, Ðакао, СингапÑÑ, ÐалайзиÑ, СШÐ). УÑпеÑное пÑоведение полиÑики либеÑализаÑии в ÑоÑеÑании Ñ Ð¶ÐµÑÑко пÑоводимой полиÑикой огÑаниÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ ÑождаемоÑÑи (Ñнижение ÑождаемоÑÑи за 20 Ð»ÐµÑ ÑоÑÑавило не менее 200 млн. Ñеловек) позволило ÑоздаÑÑ Ð¼Ð½Ð¾Ð³Ð¾ÑкладнÑÑ ÑкономикÑ, в коÑоÑой гоÑпÑедпÑиÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð´Ð°ÑÑ 48% пÑомÑÑленной пÑодÑкÑии, коллекÑивнÑе - 38%, ÑаÑÑнÑе, в Ñом ÑиÑле Ñ Ð¸Ð½Ð¾ÑÑÑаннÑм ÑÑаÑÑием, - 13,5%. Ðа Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвенной ÑоÑговли пÑиÑодиÑÑÑ ÑвÑÑе 41% обÑего ÑозниÑного обоÑоÑа, коллекÑивной - поÑÑи 28% и ÑаÑÑной - 31%. ÐÐ¾Ð»Ñ ÑÑноÑнÑÑ Ñен по поÑÑебиÑелÑÑким ÑоваÑам доÑÑигла 90%, ÑÑедÑÑвам пÑоизводÑÑва - 80%, по ÑелÑÑкоÑозÑйÑÑвеннÑм пÑодÑкÑам - 85%. ÐÐ¾Ð»Ñ Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ð¾Ð² пÑомÑÑленной пÑодÑкÑии, пÑоизводÑÑво коÑоÑÑÑ ÑегÑлиÑÑеÑÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑвеннÑми диÑекÑивнÑми планами, ÑнизилаÑÑ Ñ 95% в 1978 г. до 5% в наÑÑоÑÑее вÑемÑ. УделÑнÑй Ð²ÐµÑ ÑоваÑов, Ñенами коÑоÑÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ¿Ð¾ÑÑедÑÑвенно ÑпÑавлÑÐµÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÑдаÑÑÑво, в ÑозниÑном ÑоваÑообоÑоÑе Ñпал Ñ 95 до 6%. Ðомимо ÑÑнка ÑоваÑов наÑали ÑоздаваÑÑÑÑ ÑÑнки капиÑалов, маÑин и обоÑÑдованиÑ, ÑабоÑей ÑилÑ, дÑÑÐ³Ð¸Ñ Ð½ÐµÐ¾Ð±ÑодимÑÑ Ð´Ð»Ñ Ð¿ÑоизводÑÑва ÑлеменÑов. ÐÐÐ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ ÑÐ¾Ñ Ð² ÑеÑение 20 леÑ, наÑÐ¸Ð½Ð°Ñ Ñ 1985 года в ÑÑеднем на 9,5% ежегодно. СÑÑана вÑÑла на 1-е меÑÑо в миÑе по пÑоизводÑÑÐ²Ñ ÑеменÑа, ÑвеÑнÑÑ Ð¼ÐµÑаллов, ÑлопÑаÑобÑмажнÑÑ Ñканей, велоÑипедов (ÑвÑÑе 80 млн.), моÑоÑиклов (21,3 млн.), ÑелевизоÑов (35 млн.), ÑглÑ, зеÑна, Ñлопка, ÑапÑовÑÑ ÑемÑн, мÑÑа, ÑиÑ, на 2-е - ÑимиÑеÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÑдобÑений, 3-е - ÑаÑаÑа, авÑомобилей (7,3 млн., вкл. 4,6 млн. легковÑÑ), 4-е - ÑлекÑÑоÑнеÑгии, 5-е - ÑÑÑой неÑÑи. Ðо обÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÐÐÐ ÐиÑай наÑодиÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° 4-м меÑÑе в миÑе (пÑи ÑаÑÑеÑе по паÑиÑеÑÐ½Ð¾Ð¼Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÑпаÑелÑÑÐºÐ¾Ð¼Ñ ÐºÑÑÑÑ - на 2-м). Ðа его Ð´Ð¾Ð»Ñ Ð¿ÑиÑодиÑÑÑ 5,4% миÑового валового пÑодÑкÑа (2006 г.). ÐолоÑовалÑÑнÑе ÑезеÑÐ²Ñ ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¿ÑевÑÑили в 2006 г. ÑÑиллион доллаÑов СШÐ. ÐоложиÑелÑное ÑалÑдо ÑоÑгового баланÑа ÑоÑÑавлÑÐµÑ 180 млÑд. доллаÑов. ÐÑавда, неÑмоÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° Ñакой ÑекоÑдно длиÑелÑнÑй и маÑÑÑабнÑй ÑкономиÑеÑкий ÑоÑÑ, ÑÑеднедÑÑевÑе показаÑели ÐÐÐ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð¾ÑÑаÑÑÑÑ ÐµÑе на оÑноÑиÑелÑно низком ÑÑовне, ÐÐРна дÑÑÑ Ð½Ð°ÑÐµÐ»ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð² 2005 Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ ÑоÑÑавил 7600 доллаÑов (109-110 меÑÑо в миÑе ÑÑдом Ñ Ð£ÐºÑаиной). Ð Ñоже вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑÑедний доÑод гоÑожанина в оÑкÑÑÑÑÑ Ð³Ð¾ÑÐ¾Ð´Ð°Ñ Ð½Ð° ÐºÐ¾Ð½ÐµÑ 2006 г. пÑевÑÑил 10000 Ñаней в меÑÑÑ. РкиÑайÑкой деÑевне Ð¾Ñ 100 до 150 млн. Ñеловек не могÑÑ Ð½Ð°Ð¹Ñи ÑабоÑÑ, еÑе неÑколÑко ÑоÑен миллионов занÑÑÑ ÑаÑÑиÑно. ÐÑиÑиалÑнÑй ÑÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð±ÐµÐ·ÑабоÑиÑÑ Ð² гоÑÐ¾Ð´Ð°Ñ 4,2% (2005 г.).\n" +
"\n" +
"РнаÑале 21-го века ÐиÑай пÑевÑаÑилÑÑ Ð² \"миÑовÑÑ ÑабÑикÑ\" кÑда пеÑеводиÑÑÑ ÑÑд пÑоизводÑÑв из ÑазвиÑÑÑ ÑÑÑан ÐвÑопÑ, СевеÑной ÐмеÑики и Японии. ÐÑÑнÑй ÑкономиÑеÑкий ÑоÑÑ Ð²Ð¾ многом ÑвÑзан Ñ Ð´ÐµÑевизной ÑабоÑей ÑилÑ, ÑлабÑм ÑÑовнем ÑеÑники безопаÑноÑÑи и низким конÑÑолем за Ñкологией. Ð ÑезÑлÑÑаÑе ÐиÑай Ñже ÑÑал вÑоÑÑм загÑÑзниÑелем миÑовой аÑмоÑÑеÑÑ Ð¸ гидÑоÑÑеÑÑ, поÑле гоÑаздо более моÑной Ñкономики СШÐ, а Ñакже вÑÑел в \"лидеÑÑ\" по ÑÑÑозии поÑÐ²Ñ (оÑобенно в ÑевеÑнÑÑ Ð¾Ð±Ð»Ð°ÑÑÑÑ). ÐозÑоÑÑий из-за ÑоÑÑа авÑо- и моÑопаÑка ÑÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¸Ð¼Ð¿Ð¾ÑÑа ÐиÑаем неÑÑи (3,2 млн. баÑÑелей/ÑÑÑ. в 2005-м, 2-е меÑÑо в миÑе) пÑÐ¸Ð²Ð¾Ð´Ð¸Ñ Ð² поÑледние Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ðº ÑоÑÑÑ ÐµÐµ ÑÑеднемиÑовой ÑенÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð Ñоже вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑкономиÑеÑкое и полиÑиÑеÑкое влиÑние ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð² миÑе в поÑледние Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÑÑоÑнно возÑаÑÑаеÑ. Так ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð² 1997-м и 1999-и Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ð°Ñ Ð±Ñли возÑаÑÐµÐ½Ñ \"аÑендованнÑе\" еÑе Ñ ÐоднебеÑной импеÑии ÑеÑÑиÑоÑии Ðонконг (СÑнган) и Ðакао (ÐомÑнÑ). ÐоÑÑоÑнно возÑаÑÑÐ°ÐµÑ ÑÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¾Ð±Ð¾ÑоноÑпоÑобноÑÑи ÑÑÑÐ°Ð½Ñ Ð¸ ÑеÑниÑеÑкое оÑнаÑение ÐÐÐÐ, ÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð² немалой ÑÑепени ÑпоÑобÑÑвÑÐµÑ Ð¸ РФ, поÑÑавлÑÑÑÐ°Ñ Ð² ÐиÑай ÑамÑе ÑовÑеменнÑе Ð²Ð¸Ð´Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¾ÑÑжениÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐибеÑализаÑÐ¸Ñ Ñкономики ÐÐР пока не ÑопÑовождаеÑÑÑ ÑмÑгÑением полиÑиÑеÑкого Ñежима. Ð ÑÑÑане пÑодолжаÑÑÑÑ Ð¿Ð¾Ð»Ð¸ÑиÑеÑкие ÑепÑеÑÑии пÑоÑив оппозиÑии, оÑобенно маÑÑÑабно ÑеализованнÑе во вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ \"ÑобÑÑий на плоÑади ТÑнÑанÑмÑнÑ\" в мае 1989-го, жеÑÑко конÑÑолиÑÑÑÑÑÑ Ð¡ÐÐ, вклÑÑÐ°Ñ ÐнÑеÑнеÑ. Ð Ñоже вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ Ð² поÑледние Ð³Ð¾Ð´Ñ Ð¿ÑедпÑинÑÑ ÑÑд важнÑÑ Ð¸Ð·Ð¼ÐµÐ½ÐµÐ½Ð¸Ð¹ ÑÑÑава ÐÐÐ, напÑимеÑ, в паÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÑазÑеÑено вÑÑÑпаÑÑ Ð¿ÑедÑÑавиÑелÑм пÑедпÑинимаÑелÑÑÐºÐ¸Ñ ÐºÑÑгов, введена ÑоÑаÑÐ¸Ñ Ð²ÑÑÑÐ¸Ñ ÐºÐ°Ð´Ñов ÑÑководÑÑва ÐаÑÑии. Ðо внÑÑÑенней полиÑике ÑнÑÑÑ Ð²Ñе огÑаниÑÐµÐ½Ð¸Ñ Ð½Ð° ÑоÑÑ Ð»Ð¸ÑнÑÑ ÑоÑÑоÑний и ÑазÑеÑено владение лиÑнÑми авÑомобилÑми. Ð Ñоже вÑÐµÐ¼Ñ ÑÑÑана лидиÑÑÐµÑ Ð² миÑе по колиÑеÑÑÐ²Ñ ÑмеÑÑнÑÑ ÐºÐ°Ð·Ð½ÐµÐ¹ (более 7000 в год). ÐеÑмоÑÑÑ Ð½Ð° ÑакÑÑ ÑÑÑовÑÑ Ð¿ÑакÑикÑ, ÑÑÐ¾Ð²ÐµÐ½Ñ Ð¿ÑеÑÑÑпноÑÑи и коÑÑÑпÑии поÑÑоÑнно возÑаÑÑаеÑ.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÐолиÑика либеÑализаÑии дала ÑенÑаÑионно вÑÑокие ÑезÑлÑÑаÑÑ, пеÑевела ÑÐºÐ¾Ð½Ð¾Ð¼Ð¸ÐºÑ ÐиÑÐ°Ñ Ð½Ð° иной каÑеÑÑвеннÑй ÑÑовенÑ. ÐÑи ÑÑом ÑазвиÑие Ñкономики Ð¸Ð´ÐµÑ Ð½ÐµÑавномеÑно по Ñегионам, накапливаÑÑÑÑ ÑоÑиалÑнÑе диÑпÑопоÑÑии, а ÑкологиÑеÑким аÑпекÑам ÑделÑеÑÑÑ Ð½ÐµÐ´Ð¾ÑÑаÑоÑное внимание, ÑÑо Ñже заÑÑÐ°Ð³Ð¸Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ Ð½Ðµ ÑолÑко ÑеÑÑиÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ, но и инÑеÑеÑÑ ÑопÑеделÑнÑÑ Ñ Ð½Ð¸Ð¼ ÑÑÑан.\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] См. Ñакже\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ÐиÑай (ÑивилизаÑиÑ)\n" +
"    * СобÑÑÐ¸Ñ Ð½Ð° плоÑади ТÑнÑанÑмÑÐ½Ñ 1989 года\n" +
"\n" +
"[пÑавиÑÑ] ÐиÑеÑаÑÑÑа\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ÐаÑилÑев Ð.С. ÐÑевний ÐиÑай: в 3 Ñ. Т. 3. ÐеÑиод ЧжанÑго (VâIII вв. до н.Ñ.). Ð.: ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð»Ð¸ÑеÑаÑÑÑа, 2006. ISBN 502018103X\n" +
"    * Ðепомнин Ð.Ð. ÐÑÑоÑÐ¸Ñ ÐиÑаÑ: ЭпоÑа Цин. XVII â наÑало XX века. Ð.: ÐоÑÑоÑÐ½Ð°Ñ Ð»Ð¸ÑеÑаÑÑÑа, 2005. ISBN 5020184004\n";

var devanagari =
"भारत\n" +
"विà¤à¤¿à¤ªà¥à¤¡à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾, à¤à¤ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¤ à¤à¥à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤à¥à¤· सà¥\n" +
"Jump to: navigation, search\n" +
"	यह लà¥à¤ à¤à¤ निरà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤à¤¿à¤¤ लà¥à¤ à¤à¤®à¥à¤®à¥à¤¦à¤µà¤¾à¤° हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ à¤à¥ लिठà¤à¤° à¤à¤¸ लà¥à¤ à¤à¥ निरà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤à¤¿à¤¤ लà¥à¤ बननॠà¤à¥ लिठà¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤µà¤¶à¥à¤¯à¤à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤ हà¥à¤ यह à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ लिठà¤à¥à¤ªà¤¯à¤¾ यहाठदà¥à¤à¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯\n" +
"Flag of भारत 	Coat of arms of भारत\n" +
"धà¥à¤µà¤ 	à¤à¥à¤²à¤à¤¿à¤¹à¥à¤¨\n" +
"राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤µà¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯: \"सतà¥à¤¯à¤®à¥à¤µ à¤à¤¯à¤¤à¥\" (सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤)\n" +
"\n" +
"सतà¥à¤¯ हॠविà¤à¤¯à¥ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥\n" +
"राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤à¤¾à¤¨: à¤à¤¨ à¤à¤£ मन\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"राà¤à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¥ 	नठदिलà¥à¤²à¥\n" +
"८७, ५९०) 28°34ⲠN 77°12ⲠE\n" +
"सबसॠबड़ा शहर 	मà¥à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤\n" +
"राà¤à¤­à¤¾à¤·à¤¾(à¤à¤) 	हिनà¥à¤¦à¥, à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥ तथा à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ भारतà¥à¤¯ भाषाà¤à¤\n" +
"सरà¤à¤¾à¤°\n" +
"राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¤®à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥\n" +
"	à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯\n" +
"पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤­à¤¾ पाà¤à¤¿à¤²\n" +
"डॠमनमà¥à¤¹à¤¨ सिà¤à¤¹\n" +
"बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¿à¤¶ राठसॠसà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾\n" +
"	१५ à¤à¤à¤¸à¥à¤¤, १९४७\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤«à¤²\n" +
" - à¤à¥à¤²\n" +
" \n" +
" - à¤à¤²à¥à¤¯ (%) 	 \n" +
"३२, ८७, ५९० km² (सातवाà¤)\n" +
"१२,२२,५५९ sq mi \n" +
"९.५६\n" +
"à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾\n" +
" - २००५ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤®à¤¾à¤¨\n" +
" - २००१ à¤à¤¨à¤à¤£à¤¨à¤¾\n" +
" - à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¨à¤¤à¥à¤µ 	 \n" +
"१,१०,३३,७१,००० (दà¥à¤µà¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤¯)\n" +
"१,०२,७०,१५,२४८\n" +
"३२९/km² (३१ वà¥à¤)\n" +
"८५२/sq mi \n" +
"सà¤à¤² à¤à¤°à¥à¤²à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦ (à¤à¥à¤¡à¥à¤ªà¥) (पà¥à¤ªà¥à¤ªà¥)\n" +
" - à¤à¥à¤²\n" +
" - पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ 	२००५ estimate\n" +
"$३.६३३ महासà¤à¤ (à¤à¥à¤¥à¥ GDP_PPP_per_capita = $३,३२०)\n" +
"{{{GDP_PPP_per_capita}}} (१२२ वà¥à¤)\n" +
"मानव विà¤à¤¾à¤¸ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤ (à¤à¤à¤à¤¡à¥à¤à¤) 	०.६११ (१२६ वà¥à¤) â medium\n" +
"मà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¾ 	भारतà¥à¤¯ रà¥à¤ªà¤¯à¤¾ (à¤à¤à¤à¤¨à¤à¤°)\n" +
"समय मणà¥à¤¡à¤²\n" +
" - à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤·à¥à¤® à¤à¤¤à¥ (डà¥à¤²à¤¾à¤à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¿à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤®) 	à¤à¤à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ (UTC+५:३०)\n" +
"à¤à¤¬à¥à¤¸à¤°à¥à¤µà¥à¤¡ नहà¥à¤ हॠ(UTC+५:३०)\n" +
"à¤à¤à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤ª लà¥à¤µà¥à¤² डà¥à¤®à¥à¤¨ 	.à¤à¤à¤à¤¨\n" +
"दà¥à¤°à¤­à¤¾à¤· à¤à¥à¤¡ 	+९१\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯, पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤£à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤®à¥à¤¬à¥à¤¦à¥à¤µà¥à¤ª, दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ à¤à¤¶à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ मà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤ दà¥à¤¶ हà¥à¥¤ यह भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤ªà¤®à¤¹à¤¾à¤¦à¥à¤µà¥à¤ª à¤à¤¾ सबसॠबड़ा दà¥à¤¶ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¤¾ भà¥à¤à¥à¤²à¤¿à¤ फà¥à¤²à¤¾à¤µ 8० 4' सॠ37० 6' à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥ à¤à¤à¥à¤·à¤¾à¤à¤¶ तठतथा 68० 7' सॠ97० 25'पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ दà¥à¤¶à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤° तठहॠ। भारत à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤«à¤² ३२,८७,२६३ वरà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿. मà¥. हà¥à¤ | भारत à¤à¤¾ विसà¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° सॠदà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ तठ३,२१४ à¤à¤¿. मà¥. à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ सॠपशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® तठ२,९३३ à¤à¤¿. मà¥. हà¥à¤ । भारत à¤à¥ समà¥à¤¦à¥à¤° तठरà¥à¤à¤¾ ७५१६.६ à¤à¤¿à¤²à¥à¤®à¥à¤à¤° लमà¥à¤¬à¥ हà¥à¥¤ भारत, भà¥à¤à¥à¤²à¤¿à¤ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿ सॠविशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤¾ सातवाठसबसॠबड़ा à¤à¤° à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥à¤£ सॠदà¥à¤¸à¤°à¤¾ बड़ा दà¥à¤¶ हॠ| भारत à¤à¥ पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ पाà¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ , à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°-पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मॠà¤à¥à¤¨, नà¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤², à¤à¤° भà¥à¤à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ बाà¤à¤à¥à¤²à¤¾à¤¦à¥à¤¶ à¤à¤° मà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤à¤®à¤¾à¤° दà¥à¤¶ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ हिनà¥à¤¦ महासाà¤à¤° मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ मालदà¥à¤µ, दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ मà¥à¤ शà¥à¤°à¥à¤²à¤à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤° दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£-पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤à¤¡à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¶à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°-पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ à¤à¤«à¤¼à¥à¤à¤¼à¤¾à¤¨à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¥ साथ सà¥à¤®à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ दावा à¤à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° मà¥à¤ हिमालय परà¥à¤µà¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ मà¥à¤ हिनà¥à¤¦ महासाà¤à¤° हà¥à¥¤ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ बà¤à¤à¤¾à¤² à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¡à¤¼à¥ हà¥à¥¤ पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ à¤à¤°à¤¬ साà¤à¤° हà¥à¥¤ भारत मà¥à¤ à¤à¤ बड़ॠनदियाठहà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤à¤à¤¾ नदॠभारतà¥à¤¯ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ मॠबहà¥à¤¤ पवितà¥à¤° मानॠà¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ बड़ॠनदियाठबà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°, यमà¥à¤¨à¤¾, à¤à¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤µà¤°à¥, à¤à¤¾à¤µà¥à¤°à¥, à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤£à¤¾, à¤à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤², सतलà¤, बियास हà¥à¤ ।\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ १०० à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡à¤¼ (१ à¤à¤°à¤¬) सॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾, à¤à¥à¤¨ à¤à¥ बाद विशà¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ सबसॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ हà¥à¥¤ यह विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤¾ सबसॠबड़ा लà¥à¤à¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤° हà¥à¥¤ यहाठ३०० सॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ भाषाà¤à¤ बà¥à¤²à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हॠ(साà¤à¤à¥à¤¸à¤¨ à¤à¤¾à¤¹à¤¿à¤)। यह à¤à¤ बहà¥à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ भà¥à¤®à¤¿ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ दसवà¥à¤ सबसॠबड़ॠà¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾ हà¥, à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥ हाल मà¥à¤ भारत नॠà¤à¤¾à¤«à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ हà¥, à¤à¤° ताà¤à¤¼à¤¾ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤à¤¿ मà¥à¤ भारत विशà¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ तà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥, à¤à¥à¤¥à¥ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨ पर हà¥à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤¾ दावा à¤à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हॠ(साà¤à¤à¥à¤¸à¤¨ à¤à¤¾à¤¹à¤¿à¤)। भारत भà¥à¤à¥à¤²à¤¿à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤«à¤² à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¾à¤° पर विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤¾ सातवाठसबसॠबड़ा राषà¥à¤à¥à¤° हà¥à¥¤ यह विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¤à¤® सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾ पालना रहा हॠà¤à¥à¤¸à¥ - सिनà¥à¤§à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤à¥ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ , à¤à¤° महतà¥à¤µà¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤£ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤ वà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤¾à¤° पथà¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤­à¤¿à¤¨à¥à¤¨ à¤à¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤ विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤° पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ धरà¥à¤® : हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ , बà¥à¤§ , à¤à¥à¤¨ तथा सिठभारत मà¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤ | १९४७ मà¥à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¤¿ सॠपà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¿à¤¶ भारत à¤à¥ रà¥à¤ª मà¥à¤ बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¿à¤¶ सामà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ à¤à¤à¤ भारत नॠविà¤à¤¤ २० वरà¥à¤· मà¥à¤ सारà¥à¤¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ हà¥, विशà¥à¤· रà¥à¤ª सॠà¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤° सà¥à¤¨à¥à¤¯ | भारतà¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯ शà¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤° विशà¥à¤µà¤µà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤ शà¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ राà¤à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¥ नठदिलà¥à¤²à¥ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ बड़ॠमहानà¤à¤° मà¥à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤ (बमà¥à¤¬à¤), à¤à¥à¤²à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ (à¤à¤²à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¾) à¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¨à¤ (मदà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¸) हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¤¨à¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤®\n" +
"[à¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤à¤]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * १ नाम\n" +
"    * २ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸\n" +
"    * ३ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°\n" +
"    * ४ राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"    * ५ राà¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶\n" +
"    * ६ भà¥à¤à¥à¤² à¤à¤° मà¥à¤¸à¤®\n" +
"    * ७ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾\n" +
"    * ८ à¤à¤¨à¤µà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¤\n" +
"    * ९ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"    * १० यह भॠदà¥à¤à¥à¤\n" +
"    * ११ बाहरॠà¤à¤¡à¤¼à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] नाम\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत नाम à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ दॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¿à¤ नाम हॠहिनà¥à¤¦à¥ मà¥à¤ भारत à¤à¤° à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¡à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ (India)। à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¡à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ नाम à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ सिनà¥à¤§à¥ नदॠà¤à¥ फारसॠनाम सॠहà¥à¤à¥¤ भारत नाम à¤à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨ हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ राà¤à¤¾ भरत, à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¤à¥ à¤à¤¥à¤¾ महाभारत मà¥à¤ हà¥, à¤à¥ नाम सॠलिया à¤à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤ तà¥à¤¸à¤°à¤¾ नाम हिनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ (à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ फारसà¥) या हिनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤à¤ à¤à¥ भà¥à¤®à¤¿ मà¥à¤à¤² à¤à¤¾à¤² सॠपà¥à¤°à¤¯à¥à¤ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हॠयदà¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¿ à¤à¤¸à¤à¤¾ समà¤à¤¾à¤²à¥à¤¨ à¤à¤ªà¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¤® हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸\n" +
"\n" +
"पाषाण यà¥à¤ भà¥à¤®à¤¬à¥à¤à¤à¤¾ मधà¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤«à¤¾à¤à¤ भारत मà¥à¤ मानव à¤à¥à¤µà¤¨ à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¤à¤® पà¥à¤°à¤®à¤¾à¤£ हà¥à¥¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¥à¤® सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ बसà¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ नॠ९००० वरà¥à¤· पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ सà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤ª लिया। यहॠà¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤² à¤à¤° सिनà¥à¤§à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤à¥ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ मà¥à¤ विà¤à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤ , à¤à¥ २६०० à¤à¤¸à¤µà¥ à¤à¤° १९०० à¤à¤¸à¤µà¥ à¤à¥ मधà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ à¤à¤°à¤® पर थà¥à¥¤ लà¤à¤­à¤ १६०० à¤à¤¸à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¯ भारत à¤à¤ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ वà¥à¤¦à¤¿à¤ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¾à¤¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ । à¤à¤¸ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ सà¥à¤°à¥à¤¤ वà¥à¤¦ à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤£ हà¥à¤à¥¤ यह परमà¥à¤ªà¤°à¤¾ à¤à¤ सहसà¥à¤° वरà¥à¤· पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¨à¥ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¥ समय दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ बारत मà¥à¤ दà¥à¤°à¤µà¤¿à¤¡à¤¼ सभà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ विà¤à¤¾à¤¸ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ रहा। दà¥à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ नॠà¤à¤ दà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¬à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤ भारत मà¥à¤ à¤à¤ मिशà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¤ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¾ निरà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤£ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"५०० à¤à¤¸à¤µà¥ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ à¤à¥ बाद, à¤à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤° राà¤à¥à¤¯ बन à¤à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° मà¥à¤ मà¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ राà¤à¤µà¤à¤¶, à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤®à¥à¤ बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ महाराà¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¶à¥à¤ समà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤²à¤¿à¤¤ थà¥, नॠभारत à¤à¥ साà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ पà¤à¤² पर à¤à¤²à¥à¤²à¥à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¾à¤ª à¤à¥à¤¡à¤¼à¥à¥¤ १८० à¤à¤¸à¤µà¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤°à¤®à¥à¤­ सà¥, मधà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¶à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ सॠà¤à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¤®à¤£ हà¥à¤, à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¤à¥ परिणामसà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤ª à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤ªà¤®à¤¹à¤¾à¤¦à¥à¤µà¥à¤ª मà¥à¤ यà¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤¨à¥, शà¤, पारà¥à¤¥à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤à¤¤à¤¤à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¤¾à¤£ राà¤à¤µà¤à¤¶ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤ | तà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾ समय à¤à¤¬ भारत पर à¤à¥à¤ªà¥à¤¤ वà¤à¤¶ à¤à¤¾ शासन था, भारत à¤à¤¾ \"सà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤£à¤¿à¤® à¤à¤¾à¤²\" à¤à¤¹à¤²à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤\n" +
"तà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ मà¥à¤ समà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¤à¤¶à¥à¤ दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ बनाया à¤à¤¯à¤¾ मधà¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶ मà¥à¤ साà¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤ª\n" +
"तà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ मà¥à¤ समà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¤à¤¶à¥à¤ दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ बनाया à¤à¤¯à¤¾ मधà¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶ मà¥à¤ साà¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤ª\n" +
"\n" +
"दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ भारत मà¥à¤ भिनà¥à¤¨-भिनà¥à¤¨ समयà¤à¤¾à¤² मà¥à¤ à¤à¤ राà¤à¤µà¤à¤¶ à¤à¤¾à¤²à¥à¤à¥à¤¯, à¤à¥à¤°, à¤à¥à¤², पलà¥à¤²à¤µ तथा पाà¤à¤¡à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤²à¥ | विà¤à¥à¤à¤¾à¤¨, à¤à¤²à¤¾, साहितà¥à¤¯, à¤à¤£à¤¿à¤¤, à¤à¤à¥à¤² शासà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°, पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥, धरà¥à¤®, तथा दरà¥à¤¶à¤¨ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¹à¥à¤ राà¤à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¥ शासनà¤à¤¾à¤² मà¥à¤ फ़लà¥-फ़à¥à¤²à¥ |\n" +
"\n" +
"१२वà¥à¤ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤°à¤à¤­ मà¥à¤, भारत पर à¤à¤¸à¥à¤²à¤¾à¤®à¥ à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¤®à¤£à¥à¤ à¤à¥ पशà¥à¤à¤¾à¤¤, à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥ व à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ भारत à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤à¤¶ भाठदिलà¥à¤²à¥ सलà¥à¤¤à¤¨à¤¤ à¤à¥ शासनाधà¥à¤¨ हॠà¤à¤¯à¤¾; à¤à¤° बाद मà¥à¤, à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤à¤¶ à¤à¤ªà¤®à¤¹à¤¾à¤¦à¥à¤µà¥à¤ª मà¥à¤à¤² वà¤à¤¶ à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¥à¤¨ । दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ भारत मà¥à¤ विà¤à¤¯à¤¨à¤à¤° सामà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯ शà¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤¶à¤¾à¤²à¥ निà¤à¤²à¤¾à¥¤ हालाà¤à¤à¤¿, विशà¥à¤·à¤¤à¤ तà¥à¤²à¤¨à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤®à¤ रà¥à¤ª सà¥, सà¤à¤°à¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤¤ दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤ राà¤à¥à¤¯ शà¥à¤· रहॠà¤à¤¥à¤µà¤¾ à¤à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¯à¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"१७वà¥à¤ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ à¤à¥ मधà¥à¤¯à¤à¤¾à¤² मà¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¤à¤à¤¾à¤², डà¤, फà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¤¸, बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤¨ सहित à¤à¤¨à¥à¤à¥à¤ यà¥à¤°à¥à¤ªà¥à¤¯ दà¥à¤¶à¥à¤, à¤à¥ भारत सॠवà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤¾à¤° à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤ थà¥, à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¹à¥à¤¨à¥à¤ दà¥à¤¶ à¤à¥ शासà¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤°à¤¾à¤à¤à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ लाभ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤ à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤ दà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ दà¥à¤¶à¥à¤ सॠवà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤¾à¤° à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤ लà¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ रà¥à¤à¤¨à¥ मà¥à¤ सफल रहॠà¤à¤° १८४० तठलà¤à¤­à¤ सà¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤£ दà¥à¤¶ पर शासन à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥ मà¥à¤ सफल हà¥à¤à¥¤ १८५७ मà¥à¤ बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¿à¤¶ à¤à¤¸à¥à¤ à¤à¤à¤¡à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤®à¥à¤ªà¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ विरà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ à¤à¤¸à¤«à¤² विदà¥à¤°à¥à¤¹, à¤à¥ à¤à¤¿ भारतà¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¥à¤® सà¤à¤à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤® सॠà¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥, à¤à¥ बाद भारत à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤à¤¶ भाठसà¥à¤§à¥ à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥ शासन à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¶à¤¾à¤¸à¤¨à¤¿à¤ नियà¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤£ मà¥à¤ ठà¤à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤£à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤° - १३वà¥à¤ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ मà¥à¤ बनॠà¤à¤¡à¤¼à¥à¤¸à¤¾ à¤à¥ सà¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ मनà¥à¤¦à¤¿à¤° मà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤, यह दà¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ सब सॠपà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤£à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤° - १३वà¥à¤ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ मà¥à¤ बनॠà¤à¤¡à¤¼à¥à¤¸à¤¾ à¤à¥ सà¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ मनà¥à¤¦à¤¿à¤° मà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤, यह दà¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ सब सॠपà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"बà¥à¤¸à¤µà¥à¤ शताबà¥à¤¦à¥ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤°à¤à¤­ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤ लमà¥à¤¬à¥ समय तठसà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ लियॠविशाल à¤à¤¹à¤¿à¤à¤¸à¤¾à¤µà¤¾à¤¦à¥ सà¤à¤à¤°à¥à¤· à¤à¤²à¤¾, à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¤¾ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¥âव महातà¥à¤®à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤§à¥, à¤à¥ à¤à¤¿ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¿à¤ रà¥à¤ª सॠà¤à¤§à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤ भारत à¤à¥ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¿à¤¤à¤¾ सॠसà¤à¤¬à¥à¤§à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤, नॠà¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ साथ - साथ à¤à¤à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¥à¤à¤° à¤à¤à¤¾à¤¦, सरदार भà¤à¤¤ सिà¤à¤¹, सà¥à¤ दà¥à¤µ, राà¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥, नà¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¥ सà¥à¤­à¤¾à¤· à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤° बà¥à¤¸ à¤à¤¦à¤¿ à¤à¥ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¥âव मॠà¤à¤²à¥ à¤à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ सà¤à¤à¤°à¥à¤· à¤à¥ फलसà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤ª 15 à¤à¤à¤¸à¥à¤¤, 1947 भारत नॠà¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥ शासन सॠपà¥à¤°à¥à¤£à¤¤à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤ à¤à¥à¥¤ तदà¥à¤ªà¤°à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤ 26 à¤à¤¨à¤µà¤°à¥, 1950 à¤à¥ भारत à¤à¤ à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯ बना।\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¤ बहà¥à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤¯ तथा बहà¥à¤§à¤°à¥à¤®à¤¿à¤ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤° हà¥à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ भारत à¤à¥ समय-समय पर सामà¥à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¦à¤¾à¤¯à¤¿à¤ तथा à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤¯ विदà¥à¤µà¥à¤· à¤à¤¾ शिà¤à¤¾à¤° हà¥à¤¨à¤¾ पà¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¸à¤à¤¤à¥à¤· तथा विदà¥à¤°à¥à¤¹ भॠहालाà¤à¤à¤¿ दà¥à¤¶ à¤à¥ à¤à¤²à¤-à¤à¤²à¤ हिसà¥à¤¸à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ हà¥à¤¤à¥ रहॠहà¥à¤, पर à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ धरà¥à¤®à¤¨à¤¿à¤°à¤ªà¥à¤à¥à¤·à¤¤à¤¾ तथा à¤à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¤à¤¾, à¤à¥à¤µà¤² १९७५-७७ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¡à¤¼, à¤à¤¬ ततà¥à¤à¤¾à¤²à¥à¤¨ पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¤®à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥ à¤à¤à¤¦à¤¿à¤°à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤§à¥ नॠà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¤à¤à¤¾à¤² à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤·à¤£à¤¾ à¤à¤° दॠथà¥, à¤à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤£à¥à¤¯ रहॠहà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ पड़à¥à¤¸à¥ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ साथ à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¥à¤²à¤à¥ सà¥à¤®à¤¾ विवाद हà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ à¤à¤¸à¥ à¤à¥à¤à¥ पà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤ पर यà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ à¤à¤¾ भॠसामना à¤à¤°à¤¨à¤¾ पड़ा हà¥à¥¤ १९६२ मà¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤¨ à¤à¥ साथ, तथा १९४७, १९६५, १९७१ à¤à¤µà¤®à¥ १९९९ मà¥à¤ पाà¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¥ साथ लड़ाà¤à¤¯à¤¾à¤ हॠà¤à¥à¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥à¤à¤¨à¤¿à¤°à¤ªà¥à¤à¥à¤· à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤²à¤¨ तथा सà¤à¤¯à¥à¤à¥à¤¤ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤° सà¤à¤ à¤à¥ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤ सदसà¥à¤¯ दà¥à¤¶à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"१९७४ मà¥à¤ भारत नॠà¤à¤ªà¤¨à¤¾ पहला परमाणॠपरà¥à¤à¥à¤·à¤£ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ था à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¥ बाद १९९८ मà¥à¤ 5 à¤à¤° परà¥à¤à¥à¤·à¤£ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥ à¤à¤¯à¥à¥¤ १९९० à¤à¥ दशठमà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥ à¤à¤¯à¥ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤§à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤à¤°à¤£ à¤à¥ बदà¥à¤²à¤¤ à¤à¤ दà¥à¤¶ सबसॠतà¥à¤à¥ सॠविà¤à¤¾à¤¸à¤¶à¥à¤² राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ सà¥à¤à¥ मà¥à¤ ठà¤à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] सरà¤à¤¾à¤°\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत सरà¤à¤¾à¤°\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤¾ सà¤à¤µà¤¿à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤ सारà¥à¤µà¤­à¥à¤®à¤¿à¤, समाà¤à¤µà¤¾à¤¦à¥, धरà¥à¤®à¤¨à¤¿à¤°à¤ªà¥à¤à¥à¤·, लà¥à¤à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤§à¤¿ दà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¤ लà¥à¤à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤£à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¯ हà¥, à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¤¾ दà¥à¤µà¤¿à¤¸à¤¦à¤¨à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤®à¤ सà¤à¤¸à¤¦ वà¥à¤¸à¥à¤à¤®à¤¿à¤¨à¥à¤¸à¥à¤à¤° शà¥à¤²à¥ à¤à¥ सà¤à¤¸à¤¦à¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤£à¤¾à¤²à¥ दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ सà¤à¤à¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ शासन मà¥à¤ तà¥à¤¨ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤à¤ हà¥à¤: नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾, à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤° वà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤à¤¾à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿,à¤à¥ à¤à¤¿ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤° à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ हà¥, has a largely ceremonial role. à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सà¤à¤µà¤¿à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤­à¤¿à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤à¤°à¤£, पà¥à¤°à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤µà¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¨à¥à¤ (विधà¥à¤¯à¤) पर à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ सहमति दà¥à¤¨à¤¾, à¤à¤° à¤à¤§à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¦à¥à¤¶ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ à¤à¤°à¤¨à¤¾à¥¤ वह भारतà¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ भॠहà¥à¥¤ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤° à¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¾à¤·à¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ à¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤· मतदान विधि दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ ५ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¥ लियॠà¤à¥à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¤®à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ हॠà¤à¤° à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ सारॠशà¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤ à¤à¤¸à¥ à¤à¥ पास हà¥à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤µ राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ पारà¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ या à¤à¤ à¤¬à¤¨à¥à¤§à¤¨ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤· विधि सॠसà¤à¤¸à¤¦ मà¥à¤ बहà¥à¤®à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤ªà¥à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥ पर हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ बहà¥à¤®à¤¤ बनॠरहनॠà¤à¥ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤à¤¿ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤à¤¾à¤² ५ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ सà¤à¤µà¤¿à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥ à¤à¤ª-पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¤®à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥ à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤µà¤§à¤¾à¤¨ नहà¥à¤ हॠपर समय-समय पर à¤à¤¸à¤®à¥à¤ फà¥à¤°à¤¬à¤¦à¤² हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ रहा हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"वà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤à¤¾ सà¤à¤¸à¤¦ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¹à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¥ दॠसदन हà¥à¤ - à¤à¤à¥à¤à¤¸à¤¦à¤¨ राà¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¤­à¤¾, or Council of States,à¤à¤° निमà¥à¤¨à¤¸à¤¦à¤¨ लà¥à¤à¤¸à¤­à¤¾. राà¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¤­à¤¾ मà¥à¤ २४५ सदसà¥à¤¯ हà¥à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤¬à¤à¤¿ लà¥à¤à¤¸à¤­à¤¾ मà¥à¤ ५५२। राà¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¤­à¤¾ à¤à¥ सदसà¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤µ, à¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤· विधि सॠ६ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¥ लियॠहà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥, à¤à¤¬à¤à¤¿ लà¥à¤à¤¸à¤­à¤¾ à¤à¥ सदसà¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤µ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤· विधि सà¥, ५ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤µà¤§à¤¿ à¤à¥ लियà¥à¥¤ १८ वरà¥à¤· सॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤®à¥à¤° à¤à¥ सभॠभारतà¥à¤¯ नाà¤à¤°à¤¿à¤ मतदान à¤à¤° सà¤à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ तà¥à¤¨ à¤à¤à¤ हà¥à¤ - राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿, à¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¾à¤·à¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤° मà¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤®à¤à¤¡à¤²à¥¤ मà¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤®à¤à¤¡à¤² à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¤®à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ मà¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤®à¤à¤¡à¤² à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥ à¤à¥ सà¤à¤¸à¤¦ à¤à¤¾ सदसà¥à¤¯ हà¥à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¨à¤¿à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾, वà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤à¤¾ सॠनà¥à¤à¥ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤° नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ शà¥à¤°à¥à¤· सरà¥à¤µà¥à¤à¥à¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯ हà¥, à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ पà¥à¤°à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤§à¥à¤¶ हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ सरà¥à¤µà¥à¤à¥à¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ नयॠमामलà¥à¤ तथा à¤à¤à¥à¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ विवादà¥à¤, दà¥à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤° हà¥à¥¤ भारत मà¥à¤ 21 à¤à¤à¥à¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯ हà¥à¤, à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤° à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¤¦à¤¾à¤¯à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤µ सरà¥à¤µà¥à¤à¥à¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¥à¤à¥à¤·à¤¾ सà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ नà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¯à¤ªà¤¾à¤²à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤° वà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ परसà¥à¤ªà¤° मतभà¥à¤¦ या विवाद à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤²à¤¹ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत à¤à¥ राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤¾ मानà¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤°\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤¾ मानà¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤°\n" +
"\n" +
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"\n" +
"१९९६ मà¥à¤, भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾ पारà¥à¤à¥ (भाà¤à¤ªà¤¾), सबसॠबड़ॠराà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ सà¤à¤à¤ à¤¨ à¤à¥ रà¥à¤ª मà¥à¤ à¤à¤­à¤°à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¸à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸ à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸ मà¥à¤ पहलॠबार à¤à¤ ठà¥à¤¸ विपà¤à¥à¤· पà¥à¤°à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¥à¤¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¥¤ परनà¥à¤¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤²à¤à¤° सतà¥à¤¤à¤¾ वासà¥à¤¤à¤µà¤¿à¤ रà¥à¤ª सॠदॠà¤à¤ à¤¬à¤¨à¥à¤§à¤¨ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ हाथ मà¥à¤ रहॠà¤à¤¿à¤¨à¥à¤¹à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸ à¤à¤¾ समà¥à¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤£ समरà¥à¤¥à¤¨ था। १९९९ मà¥à¤, भाà¤à¤ªà¤¾ नॠà¤à¥à¤à¥ दलà¥à¤ à¤à¥ साथ लà¥à¤à¤° राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤ à¤¬à¤¨à¥à¤§à¤¨ (राà¤à¤) बनाया à¤à¤° ५ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ तठà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤à¤¾à¤² पà¥à¤°à¤¾ à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥ वालॠवह पहलॠà¤à¥à¤°-à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸à¥ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° बनà¥à¥¤ १९९९ सॠपà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ à¤à¤¾ दशठà¤à¤²à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤µà¤§à¤¿ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ था, à¤à¤¨ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सात भिनà¥à¤¨ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ बनà¥à¥¤ परनà¥à¤¤à¥ १९९१ मॠबनॠà¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° नॠà¤à¤ªà¤¨à¤¾ ५ वरà¥à¤· à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤à¤¾à¤² पà¥à¤°à¤¾ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤° à¤à¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤§à¤¾à¤° लाà¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤® à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤µ २००४ à¤à¥ फ़लसà¥à¤µà¤°à¥à¤ª à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸ दल नॠसरà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤§à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤¤à¥à¤ à¤à¤° वह बड़ॠहॠà¤à¤® बहà¥à¤®à¤¤ सॠसतà¥à¤¤à¤¾ मà¥à¤ वापिस à¤à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸ नॠà¤à¤ à¤à¥à¤¡à¤¼ दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤®à¥à¤¯à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤ पारà¥à¤à¥ (मारà¥à¤à¥à¤¸à¤µà¤¾à¤¦à¥) à¤à¤° बहà¥à¤¤ सॠराà¤à¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¤à¤°à¥à¤¯ पारà¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ साथ लà¥à¤à¤° यà¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤¡ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¸à¤¿à¤µ à¤à¤²à¤¾à¤¯à¤¨à¥à¤¸ (यà¥à¤ªà¥à¤) नामठसरà¤à¤¾à¤° बनाà¤à¥¤ à¤à¤ बà¥à¤à¥à¤ªà¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ सहयà¥à¤à¥ विपà¤à¥à¤· मà¥à¤ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ भà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤à¤¾ निभातॠहà¥à¤à¥¤ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¤à¤° पर à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥ विशà¥à¤· पारà¥à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾ दबदबा न हà¥à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤° राà¤à¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¤à¤° à¤à¥ à¤à¤ पारà¥à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ सà¥à¤¤à¤° पर à¤à¤­à¤°à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ १९९६ सॠबनॠसभॠसरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤ à¤¬à¤¨à¥à¤§à¤¨à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤µà¤¶à¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¾ पड़ॠहà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] राà¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत à¤à¥ राà¤à¥à¤¯\n" +
"\n" +
"वरà¥à¤¤à¤®à¤¾à¤¨ मà¥à¤ भारत २८ राà¤à¥à¤¯à¥à¤, ६ à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶à¥à¤ à¤à¤° राà¤à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¥ दिलà¥à¤²à¥ मॠबà¤à¤à¤¾ हà¥à¤ हà¥à¥¤ राà¤à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¨à¥ हà¥à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¤à¤à¤¤à¥à¤° सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤¬à¤à¤¿ à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶à¥à¤ पर à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤° दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ नियà¥à¤à¥à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¬à¤à¤§à¤¨ शासन à¤à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥, हालाà¤à¤à¤¿ à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ लà¥à¤à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° भॠहà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
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"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] भà¥à¤à¥à¤² à¤à¤° मà¥à¤¸à¤®\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत à¤à¤¾ भà¥à¤à¥à¤²\n" +
"हिमालय à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° मà¥à¤ à¤à¤®à¥à¤®à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¾à¤¶à¥à¤®à¥à¤° सॠलà¥à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤£à¤¾à¤à¤² पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶ तठभारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ सà¥à¤®à¤¾ बनाता हà¥\n" +
"हिमालय à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° मà¥à¤ à¤à¤®à¥à¤®à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¾à¤¶à¥à¤®à¥à¤° सॠलà¥à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤£à¤¾à¤à¤² पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¥à¤¶ तठभारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ सà¥à¤®à¤¾ बनाता हà¥\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¤à¤° à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¤ªà¤¶à¥à¤à¤¿à¤®à¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¤¤ हिमालय à¤à¥ पहाà¤à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ शà¥à¤· à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥, मधà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ भारत à¤à¤à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤à¤¾à¤ मà¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤ सॠबना हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤°à¥-पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ पाà¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ सॠसà¤à¤¾ हà¥à¤, भारत à¤à¥ पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ थार à¤à¤¾ मरà¥à¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤² हà¥à¥¤ दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ भारत लà¤à¤­à¤ सà¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤£ हॠदà¤à¥à¤à¤¨ à¤à¥ पठार सॠनिरà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ यह पठार पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ à¤à¤° पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤®à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ बà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¤ महतà¥à¤µà¤ªà¥à¤°à¥à¤£ à¤à¤° बड़ॠनदियाठà¤à¥à¤¸à¥ à¤à¤à¤à¤¾, बà¥à¤°à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°, यमà¥à¤¨à¤¾, à¤à¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤µà¤°à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤£à¤¾ भारत सॠहà¥à¤à¤° बहतॠहà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¨ नदियà¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° भारत à¤à¥ भà¥à¤®à¤¿ à¤à¥à¤·à¤¿ à¤à¥ लिठà¤à¤ªà¤à¤¾à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ विसà¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¥ साथ हॠà¤à¤¸à¤à¥ मà¥à¤¸à¤® मà¥à¤ भॠबहà¥à¤¤ भिनà¥à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¹à¤¾à¤ तà¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤° à¤à¤°à¥à¤® वातावरण रहता हॠवहà¥à¤ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¡à¤¼à¥ सरà¥à¤¦à¥, पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¹à¤¾à¤ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ बरसात हॠवहà¥à¤ पशà¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ रà¥à¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¥ शà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¤à¤¾à¥¤ भारत मà¥à¤ वरà¥à¤·à¤¾ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¯à¤¾ मानसà¥à¤¨ हवाà¤à¤ सॠहà¥à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ शहर हॠ- दिलà¥à¤²à¥, मà¥à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤, à¤à¥à¤²à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾, à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¨à¤, बà¤à¤à¤²à¥à¤° ( बà¥à¤à¤à¤²à¥à¤°à¥ ) | यॠभॠदà¥à¤à¤à¥ - भारत à¤à¥ शहर\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾\n" +
"सà¥à¤à¤¨à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥ (à¤à¤à¤à¥) भारत à¤à¥ सबसॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ विà¤à¤¾à¤¸à¤¶à¥à¤² à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥, वारà¥à¤·à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¯ $२८५० à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡à¤¼ डालर, à¤à¤¨à¥à¤«à¤¼à¥à¤¸à¤¿à¤¸, भारत à¤à¥ सबसॠबडॠà¤à¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤®à¥à¤ªà¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤\n" +
"सà¥à¤à¤¨à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥ (à¤à¤à¤à¥) भारत à¤à¥ सबसॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ विà¤à¤¾à¤¸à¤¶à¥à¤² à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥, वारà¥à¤·à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¯ $२८५० à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡à¤¼ डालर, à¤à¤¨à¥à¤«à¤¼à¥à¤¸à¤¿à¤¸, भारत à¤à¥ सबसॠबडॠà¤à¤à¤à¥ à¤à¤®à¥à¤ªà¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"मà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¾ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨à¤¾à¤à¤¤à¤°à¤£ à¤à¥ दर सॠभारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾ विशà¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ दसवà¥à¤ à¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤°à¤¯à¤¶à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¸à¤¾à¤° à¤à¥à¤¥à¥ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨ पर हà¥à¥¤ वरà¥à¤· २००३ मà¥à¤ भारत मà¥à¤ लà¤à¤­à¤ ८% à¤à¥ दर सॠà¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ वà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§à¤¿ हà¥à¤ हॠà¤à¥ à¤à¤¿ विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ सबसॠतà¥à¤µà¥à¤° बढतॠहà¥à¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤à¤ मà¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤ परà¤à¤¤à¥ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤§à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¯ à¤à¥à¤°à¤¯à¤¶à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¥ दर सॠमातà¥à¤° ३२६२ à¤à¤®à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¨ डà¥à¤²à¤° हॠà¤à¥ à¤à¤¿ विशà¥à¤µ बà¥à¤à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¸à¤¾à¤° १२५वà¥à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨ पर हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¤¾ विदà¥à¤¶à¥ मà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¾ भà¤à¤¡à¤¾à¤° १४३ à¤à¤°à¤¬ à¤à¤®à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤¨ डà¥à¤²à¤° हà¥à¥¤ मà¥à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ राà¤à¤§à¤¾à¤¨à¥ हॠà¤à¤° भारतà¥à¤¯ रिà¤à¤°à¥à¤µ बà¥à¤à¤ à¤à¤° बà¥à¤®à¥à¤¬à¥ सà¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤¸à¤à¥à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤²à¤¯ भà¥à¥¤ यदà¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¿ à¤à¤ à¤à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤­à¥ भॠनिरà¥à¤§à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾ रà¥à¤à¤¾ सॠनà¥à¤à¥ हà¥à¤, तà¥à¤µà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ सॠबढ़तॠहà¥à¤ सà¥à¤à¤¨à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤£ मधà¥à¤¯à¤®à¤µà¤°à¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ वà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§à¤¿ हà¥à¤ हà¥à¥¤ १९९१ à¤à¥ बाद भारत मॠà¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤§à¤¾à¤° à¤à¥ नà¥à¤¤à¤¿ नॠभारत à¤à¥ सरà¥à¤µà¤à¤à¥à¤£ विà¤à¤¾à¤¸ मॠबडॠभà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤à¤¾ निभाà¤à¤¯à¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"१९९१ à¤à¥ बाद भारत मॠहà¥à¤ [à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤§à¤¾à¤°à¥¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ सà¥à¤§à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤]] नॠभारत à¤à¥ सरà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤à¤à¥à¤£ विà¤à¤¾à¤¸ मॠबड़ॠभà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤à¤¾ निभाà¤à¥¤ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾ नॠà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿ पर à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤ निरà¥à¤­à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¤® à¤à¥ हॠà¤à¤° à¤à¥à¤·à¤¿ à¤à¤¬ भारतà¥à¤¯ सà¤à¤² à¤à¤°à¥à¤²à¥ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦ (à¤à¥à¤¡à¥à¤ªà¥) à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤µà¤² २५% हà¥à¥¤ दà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤à¤¨à¤¨, पà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤²à¤¿à¤¯à¤®, बहà¥à¤®à¥à¤²à¥à¤¯ रतà¥à¤¨, à¤à¤²à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤°, à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤¸à¥à¤à¤¾à¤à¤², सà¥à¤à¤¨à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤à¥ सà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤à¤, तथा सà¤à¤¾à¤µà¤à¥ वसà¥à¤¤à¥à¤à¤à¥¤ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤à¤¤à¤° à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤à¤¿à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤¤à¥à¤° à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ महानà¤à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¸à¤ªà¤¾à¤¸ सà¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ हाल हॠà¤à¥ वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ $१७२० à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡à¤¼ à¤à¤®à¤°à¥à¤à¥ डालर वारà¥à¤·à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¯ २००४-२००५ à¤à¥ साथ भारत सà¥à¤«à¤¼à¥à¤à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤° à¤à¤° बà¥à¤ªà¥à¤ सà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾ सबसॠबडा à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤° बनà¤à¤° à¤à¤­à¤°à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ साथ हॠà¤à¤ लà¤à¥ सà¥à¤¤à¤° à¤à¥ à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ भॠहà¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤à¤¿ à¤à¥à¤à¥ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¾à¤à¤µ à¤à¤° भारतà¥à¤¯ नà¤à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ नाà¤à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤µà¤¿à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¤°à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤ पिà¤à¤²à¥ वषà¥à¤ मà¤à¥ भारत मà¥à¤ वितà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨à¥ नॠविà¤à¤¾à¤¸ मà¥à¤ बड़ॠभà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤à¤¾ निभाठहà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤µà¤² तà¥à¤¸ लाठविदà¥à¤¶à¥ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤µà¤°à¥à¤· à¤à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ बाद भॠभारà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤¨ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¯ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤ à¤à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤µà¤¶à¥à¤¯à¤ परनà¥à¤¤à¥ à¤à¤® विà¤à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤¨ à¤à¤¦à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¡à¥à¤ªà¥ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥à¤² ५.३% हà¥à¥¤ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤¨ १०% भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¾à¤®à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤à¥à¤µà¤¿à¤à¤¾ दà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ वासà¥à¤¤à¤µà¤¿à¤ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ ४.२ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤¿à¤ रà¥à¤ª सॠदà¥à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤ तॠपरà¥à¤¯à¤à¤¨ भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¥à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤µà¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤¾ à¤à¥ लà¤à¤­à¤ $४०० à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡ डालर पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¥ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ वà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤ªà¤¾à¤° सहयà¥à¤à¥ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤®à¤°à¥à¤à¤¾, à¤à¤¾à¤ªà¤¾à¤¨, à¤à¥à¤¨ à¤à¤° सà¤à¤¯à¥à¤à¥à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¤¬ à¤à¤®à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ निरà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤·à¤¿ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦, à¤à¤¾à¤¯, à¤à¤ªà¤¡à¤¼à¤¾, बहà¥à¤®à¥à¤²à¥à¤¯ रतà¥à¤¨ व à¤à¥à¤µà¥à¤²à¤°à¥, साफ़à¥à¤à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤° सà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤¯à¥à¤, à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤¯à¤°à¤¿à¤à¤ सामान, रसायन तथा à¤à¤®à¤¡à¤¼à¤¾ à¤à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ हà¥à¤ à¤à¤¬à¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¯à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤à¤¾ तà¥à¤², मशà¥à¤¨à¤°à¥, बहà¥à¤®à¥à¤²à¥à¤¯ रतà¥à¤¨, फ़रà¥à¤à¤¿à¤²à¤¾à¤à¤à¤¼à¤° तथा रसायन पà¥à¤°à¤®à¥à¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ वरà¥à¤· २००४ à¤à¥ लियॠभारत à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤² निरà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¤ $६९१८ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡à¤¼ डालर à¤à¥ थॠà¤à¤¬à¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¯à¤¾à¤¤ $८९३३ à¤à¤°à¥à¤¡ डालर à¤à¥ थà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] à¤à¤¨à¤µà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¤\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारत à¤à¥ लà¥à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥à¤¨ à¤à¥ बाद विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤¾ दà¥à¤¸à¤°à¤¾ सबसॠबड़ॠà¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ वाला दà¥à¤¶ हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¥ विभिनà¥à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾à¤à¤ सॠभरॠà¤à¤¨à¤¤à¤¾ मà¥à¤ भाषा, à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤° धरà¥à¤®, सामाà¤à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤° राà¤à¤¨à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ सà¤à¤à¤ à¤¨ à¤à¥ मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ शतà¥à¤°à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"हिनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¤à¥à¤µ भारत à¤à¤¾ सबसॠबà¤à¤¾ धरà¥à¤® हॠ- à¤à¤¸ à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤° मॠà¤à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤ मà¤à¤¦à¤¿à¤° दरà¥à¤¶à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥\n" +
"हिनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¤à¥à¤µ भारत à¤à¤¾ सबसॠबà¤à¤¾ धरà¥à¤® हॠ- à¤à¤¸ à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤° मॠà¤à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤ मà¤à¤¦à¤¿à¤° दरà¥à¤¶à¤¾à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤¯à¤¾ हà¥\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत मà¥à¤ ६४.८ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤¶à¤¤ साà¤à¥à¤·à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ हॠà¤à¤¿à¤¸à¤®à¥ सॠ७५.३ % पà¥à¤°à¥à¤· à¤à¤° ५३.७% सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤ साà¤à¥à¤·à¤° हà¥à¥¤ लिà¤à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¤ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿ सॠभारत मà¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ १००० पà¥à¤°à¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¥ पà¥à¤à¥ मातà¥à¤° ९३३ महिलायà¥à¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯ भाà¤à¥à¤¦à¤¾à¤°à¥ दर (à¤à¥à¤² à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ मॠà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤°à¤¨à¥ वालà¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ भाà¤) ३९.१% हà¥à¥¤ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤·à¥à¤ à¤à¥ लियॠयह दर ५१.७% à¤à¤° सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ लियॠ२५.६% हà¥à¥¤ भारत à¤à¥ १००० à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ मà¥à¤ २२.३२ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤®à¥à¤ à¤à¥ साथ बढतॠà¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ à¤à¤§à¥ लà¥à¤ २२.६६ वरà¥à¤· सॠà¤à¤® à¤à¤¯à¥ à¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"यदà¥à¤¯à¤ªà¤¿ भारत à¤à¥ ८०.५ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤¶à¤¤ à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ हà¥, १३.४ पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¿à¤¶à¤¤ à¤à¤¨à¤¸à¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ साथ भारत विशà¥à¤µ मà¥à¤ मà¥à¤¸à¤²à¤®à¤¾à¤¨à¥à¤ à¤à¥ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾ मà¥à¤ भॠà¤à¤à¤¡à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¶à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¥ बाद दà¥à¤¸à¤°à¥ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤¨ पर हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ धरà¥à¤®à¤¾à¤µà¤²à¤®à¥à¤¬à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¸à¤¾à¤ (२.३३ %), सिठ(१.८४ %), बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ (०.७६ %), à¤à¥à¤¨ (०.४० %), à¤à¤¯à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤µà¤²à¤¿ (०.१२ %), यहà¥à¤¦à¥, पारसà¥, à¤à¤¹à¤®à¤¦à¥ à¤à¤° बहाठà¤à¤¦à¤¿ समà¥à¤®à¤¿à¤²à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत दॠमà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ भाषा सà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤, à¤à¤°à¥à¤¯à¤¨à¥ à¤à¤° दà¥à¤°à¤µà¤¿à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¨à¥, à¤à¤¾ भॠसà¥à¤¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¤ हॠ(साà¤à¤à¥à¤¸à¤¨ à¤à¤¾à¤¹à¤¿à¤)। भारत à¤à¤¾ सà¤à¤µà¤¿à¤§à¤¾à¤¨ à¤à¥à¤² २३ भाषाà¤à¤ à¤à¥ मानà¥à¤¯à¤¤à¤¾ दà¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ à¤à¤° à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° दà¥à¤µà¤¾à¤°à¤¾ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤®à¤à¤¾à¤ à¤à¥ लियॠà¤à¤ªà¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¥¤ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤ à¤à¤° तमिल à¤à¥à¤¸à¥ à¤à¤¤à¤¿ पà¥à¤°à¤¾à¤à¥à¤¨ भाषाà¤à¤ भारत मà¥à¤ हॠà¤à¤¨à¥à¤®à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¥à¤² मिलाà¤à¤° भारत मà¥à¤ १६५२ सॠभॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ भाषाà¤à¤ à¤à¤µà¤ बà¥à¤²à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤ बà¥à¤²à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥à¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"मà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤: भारतà¥à¤¯ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿\n" +
"ताà¤à¤®à¤¹à¤² विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ सबसॠपà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤§ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤²à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"ताà¤à¤®à¤¹à¤² विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ सबसॠपà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤§ परà¥à¤¯à¤à¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤²à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¨à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¥ साà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ धरà¥à¤¹à¤° बहà¥à¤¤ सà¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥à¤¨ हà¥à¥¤ यहाठà¤à¥ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤à¥ हà¥, à¤à¤° वरà¥à¤·à¥à¤ सॠà¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤ à¤à¤µà¤¯à¤µ à¤à¤¬à¤¤à¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤·à¥à¤£à¥à¤¯ हà¥à¤à¥¤ à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¤®à¤£à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ तथा पà¥à¤°à¤µà¤¾à¤¸à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ सॠविभिनà¥à¤¨ à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ समà¥à¤à¤à¤° यह à¤à¤ मिशà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¤ सà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿ बन à¤à¤ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤§à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤ भारत à¤à¤¾ समाà¤, भाषाà¤à¤, रà¥à¤¤à¤¿-रिवाठà¤à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¦à¤¿ à¤à¤¸à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤®à¤¾à¤£ हà¥à¤à¥¤ ताà¤à¤®à¤¹à¤² à¤à¤° à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¦à¤¾à¤¹à¤°à¤£, à¤à¤¸à¥à¤²à¤¾à¤® पà¥à¤°à¤­à¤¾à¤µà¤¿à¤¤ सà¥à¤¥à¤¾à¤ªà¤¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤²à¤¾ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤¸à¥à¤¨à¥à¤¦à¤° नमà¥à¤¨à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤®à¥à¤ªà¤¾ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤ तिबà¥à¤¬à¤¤à¥ बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ समाठà¤à¤¾ सिà¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤ªà¤¾ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ हà¥à¥¤ यह बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ नव बरà¥à¤· मà¥à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"à¤à¥à¤®à¥à¤ªà¤¾ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¤ तिबà¥à¤¬à¤¤à¥ बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ समाठà¤à¤¾ सिà¤à¥à¤à¤¿à¤® मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤ªà¤¾ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ हà¥à¥¤ यह बà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ नव बरà¥à¤· मà¥à¤ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारतà¥à¤¯ समाठबहà¥à¤§à¤°à¥à¤®à¤¿à¤, बहà¥à¤­à¤¾à¤·à¥ तथा मिशà¥à¤°-साà¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤ हà¥à¥¤ पारà¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¿à¤ भारतà¥à¤¯ पारिवारिठमà¥à¤²à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¾à¤«à¥ à¤à¤¦à¤° à¤à¥ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿ सॠदà¥à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"विभिनà¥à¤¨ धरà¥à¤®à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¸ भà¥à¤­à¤¾à¤ पर à¤à¤ मनभावन परà¥à¤µ तà¥à¤¯à¥à¤¹à¤¾à¤° मनाठà¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤ - दिवालà¥, हà¥à¤²à¥, दशहरा. पà¥à¤à¤à¤² तथा à¤à¤£à¤® . à¤à¤¦-à¤à¤²-फितर, मà¥à¤¹à¤°à¥à¤°à¤®, à¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¸à¤®à¤¸, à¤à¤¸à¥à¤à¤° à¤à¤¦à¤¿ भॠà¤à¤¾à¤«à¤¼à¥ लà¥à¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"हालाà¤à¤à¤¿ हà¥à¤à¥ दà¥à¤¶ à¤à¤¾ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¥à¤² हà¥, à¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤ सबसॠà¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ लà¥à¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯ हà¥à¥¤ वरà¥à¤¤à¤®à¤¾à¤¨ मà¥à¤ फà¥à¤à¤¬à¥à¤², हà¥à¤à¥ तथा à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤¸ मà¥à¤ भॠबहà¥à¤¤ भारतà¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤­à¤¿à¤°à¥à¤à¤¿ हà¥à¥¤ दà¥à¤¶ à¤à¥ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ à¤à¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥à¤® मà¥à¤ 1983 मà¥à¤ à¤à¤ बार विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤ª भॠà¤à¥à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¤à¥ à¤à¤¤à¤¿à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤¤ वरà¥à¤· 2003 मà¥à¤ वह विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¤ª à¤à¥ फाà¤à¤¨à¤² तठपहà¥à¤à¤à¤¾ था। 1930 तथा 40 à¤à¥ दशठमà¥à¤ हाà¤à¥ मà¥à¤ भारत à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ à¤à¤°à¤® पर था। मà¥à¤à¤° धà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¨à¤à¤à¤¦ नॠहà¥à¤à¥ मà¥à¤ भारत à¤à¥ बहà¥à¤¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤§à¤¿ दिलाठà¤à¤° à¤à¤ समय भारत नॠà¤à¤®à¤°à¥à¤à¤¾ à¤à¥ 24-0 सॠहराया था à¤à¥ à¤à¤¬ तर विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¤à¤¿à¤®à¤¾à¤¨ हà¥à¥¤ शतरà¤à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¨à¤ दà¥à¤¶ भारत à¤à¥ à¤à¤¿à¤²à¤¾à¤¡à¤¼à¥ शतरà¤à¤ मà¥à¤ भॠà¤à¤à¥à¤à¤¾ पà¥à¤°à¤¦à¤°à¥à¤¶à¤¨ à¤à¤°à¤¤à¥ à¤à¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारतà¥à¤¯ à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤ªà¤¾à¤¨ बहà¥à¤¤ हॠसमà¥à¤¦à¥à¤§ हà¥à¥¤ शाà¤à¤¾à¤¹à¤¾à¤°à¥ तथा माà¤à¤¸à¤¾à¤¹à¤¾à¤°à¥ दà¥à¤¨à¥ तरह à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¨à¤¾ पसनà¥à¤¦ à¤à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾ हà¥à¥¤ भारतà¥à¤¯ वà¥à¤¯à¤à¤à¤¨ विदà¥à¤¶à¥à¤ मà¥à¤ भॠबहà¥à¤¤ पसनà¥à¤¦ à¤à¤¿à¤ à¤à¤¾à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत मà¥à¤ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¤ तथा नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¥ शà¥à¤²à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤ भॠविà¤à¤¸à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¤à¤ à¤à¥ बहà¥à¤¤ हॠलà¥à¤à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤¯ हà¥à¤à¥¤ भरतनाà¤à¥à¤¯à¤®, à¤à¤¡à¤¿à¤¸à¥, à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¸à¤¿à¤¦à¥à¤§ भारतà¥à¤¯ नà¥à¤¤à¥à¤¯ शà¥à¤²à¥ हà¥à¥¤ हिनà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¸à¥à¤¤à¤¾à¤¨à¥ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¤ तथा à¤à¤°à¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤à¤ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¤ भारतà¥à¤¯ परà¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¾à¤à¤¤ सà¤à¤à¥à¤¤ à¤à¥ दॠमà¥à¤à¥à¤¯ धाराà¤à¤ हà¥à¤à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"वà¥à¤¶à¥à¤µà¥à¤à¤°à¤£ à¤à¥ à¤à¤¸ यà¥à¤ मà¥à¤ शà¥à¤· विशà¥à¤µ à¤à¥ तरह भारतà¥à¤¯ समाठपर भॠà¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥ तथा यà¥à¤°à¥à¤ªà¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¤­à¤¾à¤µ पड़ रहा हà¥à¥¤ बाहरॠलà¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤¬à¤¿à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¤¨à¤¾à¤¨à¥ à¤à¥ भारतà¥à¤¯ परà¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ नया दà¥à¤° à¤à¤ भारतà¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¥ दà¥à¤·à¥à¤à¤¿ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¤ हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤ à¤à¥à¤²à¥ समाठà¤à¥ à¤à¥à¤µà¤¨ à¤à¤¾ यतà¥à¤¨ à¤à¤° रहॠलà¥à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ मधà¥à¤¯à¤®à¤µà¤°à¥à¤à¥à¤¯ तथा वरिषà¥à¤  नाà¤à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤ à¤à¥ à¤à¤ªà¥à¤à¥à¤·à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ शिà¤à¤¾à¤° हà¥à¤¨à¤¾ पड़ता हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¥à¤ लà¥à¤ à¤à¤¸à¥ भारतà¥à¤¯ पारà¤à¤ªà¤°à¤¿à¤ मà¥à¤²à¥à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ हनन मानतॠहà¥à¤à¥¤ विà¤à¥à¤à¤¾à¤¨ तथा साहितà¥à¤¯ मà¥à¤ à¤à¤§à¤¿à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤à¤¤à¤¿ ना à¤à¤° पानॠà¤à¥ वà¤à¤¹ सॠभारतà¥à¤¯ समाठयà¥à¤°à¥à¤ªà¥à¤¯ लà¥à¤à¥à¤ पर निरà¥à¤­à¤° हà¥à¤¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ रहा हà¥à¥¤ à¤à¤¸à¥ समय मà¥à¤ लà¥à¤ विदà¥à¤¶à¥ à¤à¤µà¤¿à¤·à¥à¤à¤¾à¤°à¥à¤ à¤à¤¾ भारत मà¥à¤ पà¥à¤°à¤¯à¥à¤ à¤à¤¨à¥à¤à¤¿à¤¤ भॠसमà¤à¤¤à¥ हà¥à¤à¥¤ हालाà¤à¤à¤¿ à¤à¤¸à¥ à¤à¤ लà¥à¤ हॠà¤à¥ à¤à¤¸à¤¾ विà¤à¤¾à¤° नहà¥à¤ रà¤à¤¤à¥à¥¤\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] यह भॠदà¥à¤à¥à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"    * दà¤à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤£ भारत\n" +
"    * à¤à¤¤à¥à¤¤à¤° पà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥ भारत\n" +
"    * भारत à¤à¥ भाषाà¤à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"[सà¤à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦à¤¿à¤¤ à¤à¤°à¥à¤] बाहरॠà¤à¤¡à¤¼à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤\n" +
"\n" +
"सरà¤à¤¾à¤° (हिनà¥à¤¦à¥)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * भारत à¤à¤¾ राषà¥à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤¯ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤²\n" +
"\n" +
"सरà¤à¤¾à¤° (à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * भारतà¥à¤¯ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤¾ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ वà¥à¤¬à¤¸à¤¾à¤à¤\n" +
"    * भारतà¥à¤¯ सरà¤à¤¾à¤° à¤à¤¾ वà¥à¤¬à¤¸à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¾ सरà¤à¤¾à¤°à¥ निरà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¶à¤¿à¤à¤¾\n" +
"\n" +
"सà¥à¤¨à¤¾à¤ªà¤¤à¤¿ निरà¥à¤¦à¥à¤¶ (à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * सà¥à¤à¤à¤ मà¥à¤ भारत निबनà¥à¤§\n" +
"    * à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¸à¤¾à¤à¥à¤²à¥à¤ªà¥à¤¡à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾ बà¥à¤°à¤¿à¤à¥à¤¨à¤¿à¤à¤¾ à¤à¤¾ भारत निबनà¥à¤§\n" +
"    * बà¥à¤¬à¥à¤¸à¥ à¤à¤¾ भारत निबनà¥à¤§\n" +
"\n" +
"भारत à¤à¤¾ दà¥à¤¶ नà¤à¥à¤¶à¤¾\n" +
"\n" +
"सà¥à¤à¥à¤²à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤° (à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * à¤à¥à¤à¤² मानà¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤° सॠभारत à¤à¤¾ सà¥à¤à¥à¤²à¤¾à¤à¤ à¤à¤¿à¤¤à¥à¤°\n" +
"\n" +
"à¤à¤¨à¥à¤¯ (à¤à¤à¤à¥à¤°à¥à¤à¤¼à¥)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * विà¤à¤¿à¤­à¥à¤°à¤®à¤£ à¤à¤¾ भारत निबनà¥à¤§\n" +
"    * भारत à¤à¤ªà¥à¤¨ डायरà¥à¤à¥à¤à¤°à¥ पà¥à¤°à¥à¤à¥à¤à¥à¤ मà¥à¤\n" +
"    * भारत यातà¥à¤°à¤¾ - सामà¥à¤¹à¤¿à¤ यातà¥à¤°à¤¾ बà¥à¤²à¥à¤\n";

var english =
"English language\n" +
"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia\n" +
"⢠Learn more about citing Wikipedia â¢\n" +
"Jump to: navigation, search\n" +
"	Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled.\n" +
"If you cannot edit this article and you wish to make a change, you can discuss changes on the talk page, request unprotection, log in, or create an account.\n" +
"English  \n" +
"Pronunciation: 	/ËɪÅÉ¡lɪÊ/[37]\n" +
"Spoken in: 	Listed in the article\n" +
"Total speakers: 	First language: 309[38] â 380 million[3]\n" +
"Second language: 199[39] â 600 million[40]\n" +
"Overall: 1.8 billion[41] \n" +
"Ranking: 	3 (native speakers)[9][10]\n" +
"Total: 1 or 2 [11]\n" +
"Language family: 	Indo-European\n" +
" Germanic\n" +
"  West Germanic\n" +
"   AngloâFrisian\n" +
"    Anglic\n" +
"     English \n" +
"Writing system: 	Latin (English variant) \n" +
"Official status\n" +
"Official language of: 	53 countries\n" +
"Flag of the United Nations United Nations\n" +
"Regulated by: 	no official regulation\n" +
"Language codes\n" +
"ISO 639-1: 	en\n" +
"ISO 639-2: 	eng\n" +
"ISO 639-3: 	eng \n" +
"World countries, states, and provinces where English is a primary language are dark blue; countries, states and provinces where it is an official but not a primary language are light blue. English is also one of the official languages of the European Union.\n" +
"Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. See IPA chart for English for an English-âbased pronunciation key.\n" +
"\n" +
"English is a West Germanic language originating in England, and the first language for most people in Australia, Canada, the Commonwealth Caribbean, Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States of America (also commonly known as the Anglosphere). It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in Commonwealth countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and South Africa, and in many international organisations.\n" +
"\n" +
"Modern English is sometimes described as the global lingua franca.[1][2] English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy.[3] The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles.[4] Following World War II, the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States has significantly accelerated the spread of the language.\n" +
"\n" +
"A working knowledge of English is required in certain fields, professions, and occupations. As a result over a billion people speak English at least at a basic level (see English language learning and teaching). English is one of six official languages of the United Nations.\n" +
"Contents\n" +
"[hide]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 1 History\n" +
"    * 2 Classification and related languages\n" +
"    * 3 Geographical distribution\n" +
"          o 3.1 English as a global language\n" +
"          o 3.2 Dialects and regional varieties\n" +
"          o 3.3 Constructed varieties of English\n" +
"    * 4 Phonology\n" +
"          o 4.1 Vowels\n" +
"                + 4.1.1 See also\n" +
"          o 4.2 Consonants\n" +
"                + 4.2.1 Voicing and aspiration\n" +
"          o 4.3 Supra-segmental features\n" +
"                + 4.3.1 Tone groups\n" +
"                + 4.3.2 Characteristics of intonation\n" +
"    * 5 Grammar\n" +
"    * 6 Vocabulary\n" +
"          o 6.1 Number of words in English\n" +
"          o 6.2 Word origins\n" +
"                + 6.2.1 Dutch origins\n" +
"                + 6.2.2 French origins\n" +
"    * 7 Writing system\n" +
"          o 7.1 Basic sound-letter correspondence\n" +
"          o 7.2 Written accents\n" +
"    * 8 Formal written English\n" +
"    * 9 Basic and simplified versions\n" +
"    * 10 Notes\n" +
"    * 11 References\n" +
"    * 12 See also\n" +
"    * 13 External links\n" +
"          o 13.1 Dictionaries\n" +
"\n" +
"History\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: History of the English language\n" +
"\n" +
"English is an Anglo-Frisian language. Germanic-speaking peoples from northwest Germany (Saxons and Angles) and Jutland (Jutes) invaded what is now known as Eastern England around the fifth century AD. It is a matter of debate whether the Old English language spread by displacement of the original population, or the native Celts gradually adopted the language and culture of a new ruling class, or a combination of both of these processes (see Sub-Roman Britain).\n" +
"\n" +
"Whatever their origin, these Germanic dialects eventually coalesced to a degree (there remained geographical variation) and formed what is today called Old English. Old English loosely resembles some coastal dialects in what are now northwest Germany and the Netherlands (i.e., Frisia). Throughout the history of written Old English, it retained a synthetic structure closer to that of Proto-Indo-European, largely adopting West Saxon scribal conventions, while spoken Old English became increasingly analytic in nature, losing the more complex noun case system, relying more heavily on prepositions and fixed word order to convey meaning. This is evident in the Middle English period, when literature was to an increasing extent recorded with spoken dialectal variation intact, after written Old English lost its status as the literary language of the nobility. It is postulated that the early development of the language was influenced by a Celtic substratum.[5][6] Later, it was influenced by the related North Germanic language Old Norse, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north and the east coast down to London, the area known as the Danelaw.\n" +
"\n" +
"The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 profoundly influenced the evolution of the language. For about 300 years after this, the Normans used Anglo-Norman, which was close to Old French, as the language of the court, law and administration. By the fourteenth century, Anglo-Norman borrowings had contributed roughly 10,000 words to English, of which 75% remain in use. These include many words pertaining to the legal and administrative fields, but also include common words for food, such as mutton[7] and beef[8]. The Norman influence gave rise to what is now referred to as Middle English. Later, during the English Renaissance, many words were borrowed directly from Latin (giving rise to a number of doublets) and Greek, leaving a parallel vocabulary that persists into modern times. By the seventeenth century there was a reaction in some circles against so-called inkhorn terms.\n" +
"\n" +
"During the fifteenth century, Middle English was transformed by the Great Vowel Shift, the spread of a prestigious South Eastern-based dialect in the court, administration and academic life, and the standardising effect of printing. Early Modern English can be traced back to around the Elizabethan period.\n" +
"\n" +
"Classification and related languages\n" +
"\n" +
"The English language belongs to the western sub-branch of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages.\n" +
"\n" +
"The question as to which is the nearest living relative of English is a matter of discussion. Apart from such English-lexified creole languages such as Tok Pisin, Scots (spoken primarily in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland) is not a Gaelic language, but is part of the English family of languages: both Scots and modern English are descended from Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon. The closest relative to English after Scots is Frisian, which is spoken in the Northern Netherlands and Northwest Germany. Other less closely related living West Germanic languages include German, Low Saxon, Dutch, and Afrikaans. The North Germanic languages of Scandinavia are less closely related to English than the West Germanic languages.\n" +
"\n" +
"Many French words are also intelligible to an English speaker (though pronunciations are often quite different) because English absorbed a large vocabulary from Norman and French, via Anglo-Norman after the Norman Conquest and directly from French in subsequent centuries. As a result, a large portion of English vocabulary is derived from French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings, etc.), as well as occasional divergences in meaning, in so-called \"faux amis\", or false friends.\n" +
"\n" +
"Geographical distribution\n" +
"\n" +
"    See also: List of countries by English-speaking population\n" +
"\n" +
"Over 380 million people speak English as their first language. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.[9][10] However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as \"languages\" or \"dialects.\"[11][12] Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined.[13][14] There are some who claim that non-native speakers now outnumber native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1.[15]\n" +
"\n" +
"The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million),[16] United Kingdom (58 million),[17] Canada (17.7 million),[18] Australia (15 million),[19] Ireland (3.8 million),[17] South Africa (3.7 million),[20] and New Zealand (3.0-3.7 million).[21] Countries such as Jamaica and Nigeria also have millions of native speakers of dialect continuums ranging from an English-based creole to a more standard version of English. Of those nations where English is spoken as a second language, India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and linguistics professor David Crystal claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world.[22] Following India is the People's Republic of China.[23]\n" +
"Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
"Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)\n" +
"	Country 	Native speakers\n" +
"1 	USA 	214,809,000[16]\n" +
"2 	UK 	58,200,000[17]\n" +
"3 	Canada 	17,694,830[18]\n" +
"4 	Australia 	15,013,965[19]\n" +
"5 	Ireland 	4,200,000+ (Approx)[17]\n" +
"6 	South Africa 	3,673,203[20]\n" +
"7 	New Zealand 	3,500,000+ (Approx)[21]\n" +
"8 	Singapore 	665,087[24]\n" +
"\n" +
"English is the primary language in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia (Australian English), the Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Belize, the British Indian Ocean Territory, the British Virgin Islands, Canada (Canadian English), the Cayman Islands, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Grenada, Guernsey (Guernsey English), Guyana, Ireland (Hiberno-English), Isle of Man (Manx English), Jamaica (Jamaican English), Jersey, Montserrat, Nauru, New Zealand (New Zealand English), Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Singapore, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the United Kingdom, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the United States (various forms of American English).\n" +
"\n" +
"In many other countries, where English is not the most spoken language, it is an official language; these countries include Botswana, Cameroon, Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, Ghana, Gambia, Hong Kong, India, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malta, the Marshall Islands, Namibia, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, the Solomon Islands, Samoa, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. It is also one of the 11 official languages that are given equal status in South Africa (\"South African English\"). English is also an important language in several former colonies or current dependent territories of the United Kingdom and the United States, such as in Hong Kong and Mauritius.\n" +
"\n" +
"English is not an official language in either the United States or the United Kingdom.[25][26] Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been given official status by 30 of the 50 state governments.[27]\n" +
"\n" +
"English as a global language\n" +
"\n" +
"    See also: English on the Internet and global language\n" +
"\n" +
"Because English is so widely spoken, it has often been referred to as a \"global language\", the lingua franca of the modern era.[2] While English is not an official language in many countries, it is currently the language most often taught as a second language around the world. Some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural sign of \"native English speakers\", but is rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures worldwide as it continues to grow. It is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications, as well as one of the official languages of the European Union, the United Nations, and most international athletic organisations, including the International Olympic Committee.\n" +
"\n" +
"English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), and Spanish (8%).[28] In the EU, a large fraction of the population reports being able to converse to some extent in English. Among non-English speaking countries, a large percentage of the population claimed to be able to converse in English in the Netherlands (87%), Sweden (85%), Denmark (83%), Luxembourg (66%), Finland (60%), Slovenia (56%), Austria (53%), Belgium (52%), and Germany (51%). [29] Norway and Iceland also have a large majority of competent English-speakers.\n" +
"\n" +
"Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences.[2] In 1997, the Science Citation Index reported that 95% of its articles were written in English, even though only half of them came from authors in English-speaking countries.\n" +
"\n" +
"Dialects and regional varieties\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: List of dialects of the English language\n" +
"\n" +
"The expansion of the British Empire andâsince WWIIâthe primacy of the United States have spread English throughout the globe.[2] Because of that global spread, English has developed a host of English dialects and English-based creole languages and pidgins.\n" +
"\n" +
"The major varieties of English include, in most cases, several subvarieties, such as Cockney slang within British English; Newfoundland English within Canadian English; and African American Vernacular English (\"Ebonics\") and Southern American English within American English. English is a pluricentric language, without a central language authority like France's Académie française; and, although no variety is clearly considered the only standard, there are a number of accents considered to be more prestigious, such as Received Pronunciation in Britain.\n" +
"\n" +
"Scots developed â largely independently â from the same origins, but following the Acts of Union 1707 a process of language attrition began, whereby successive generations adopted more and more features from English causing dialectalisation. Whether it is now a separate language or a dialect of English better described as Scottish English is in dispute. The pronunciation, grammar and lexis of the traditional forms differ, sometimes substantially, from other varieties of English.\n" +
"\n" +
"Because of the wide use of English as a second language, English speakers have many different accents, which often signal the speaker's native dialect or language. For the more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see Regional accents of English speakers, and for the more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see List of dialects of the English language.\n" +
"\n" +
"Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English loanwords now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence of its speakers. Several pidgins and creole languages have formed using an English base, such as Jamaican Creole, Nigerian Pidgin, and Tok Pisin. There are many words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words. Franglais, for example, is used to describe French with a very high English word content; it is found on the Channel Islands. Another variant, spoken in the border bilingual regions of Québec in Canada, is called FrEnglish.\n" +
"\n" +
"Constructed varieties of English\n" +
"\n" +
"    * Basic English is simplified for easy international use. It is used by manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in Asia teach it as a practical subset of English for use by beginners.\n" +
"    * Special English is a simplified version of English used by the Voice of America. It uses a vocabulary of only 1500 words.\n" +
"    * English reform is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.\n" +
"    * Seaspeak and the related Airspeak and Policespeak, all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson in the 1980s to aid international cooperation and communication in specific areas. There is also a tunnelspeak for use in the Channel Tunnel.\n" +
"    * English as a lingua franca for Europe and Euro-English are concepts of standardising English for use as a second language in continental Europe.\n" +
"    * Manually Coded English â a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education. These should not be confused with true sign languages such as British Sign Language and American Sign Language used in Anglophone countries, which are independent and not based on English.\n" +
"    * E-Prime excludes forms of the verb to be.\n" +
"\n" +
"Euro-English (also EuroEnglish or Euro-English) terms are English translations of European concepts that are not native to English-speaking countries. Due to the United Kingdom's (and even the Republic of Ireland's) involvement in the European Union, the usage focuses on non-British concepts. This kind of Euro-English was parodied when English was \"made\" one of the constituent languages of Europanto.\n" +
"\n" +
"Phonology\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: English phonology\n" +
"\n" +
"Vowels\n" +
"IPA 	Description 	word\n" +
"monophthongs\n" +
"i/iË 	Close front unrounded vowel 	bead\n" +
"ɪ 	Near-close near-front unrounded vowel 	bid\n" +
"É 	Open-mid front unrounded vowel 	bed\n" +
"æ 	Near-open front unrounded vowel 	bad\n" +
"É 	Open back rounded vowel 	bod 1\n" +
"É 	Open-mid back rounded vowel 	pawed 2\n" +
"É/ÉË 	Open back unrounded vowel 	bra\n" +
"Ê 	Near-close near-back rounded vowel 	good\n" +
"u/uË 	Close back rounded vowel 	booed\n" +
"Ê/É 	Open-mid back unrounded vowel, Near-open central vowel 	bud\n" +
"É/ÉË 	Open-mid central unrounded vowel 	bird 3\n" +
"É 	Schwa 	Rosa's 4\n" +
"ɨ 	Close central unrounded vowel 	roses 5\n" +
"diphthongs\n" +
"e(ɪ)/eɪ 	Close-mid front unrounded vowel\n" +
"Close front unrounded vowel 	bayed 6\n" +
"o(Ê)/ÉÊ 	Close-mid back rounded vowel\n" +
"Near-close near-back rounded vowel 	bode 6\n" +
"aɪ 	Open front unrounded vowel\n" +
"Near-close near-front unrounded vowel 	cry\n" +
"aÊ 	Open front unrounded vowel\n" +
"Near-close near-back rounded vowel 	bough\n" +
"Éɪ 	Open-mid back rounded vowel\n" +
"Close front unrounded vowel 	boy\n" +
"ÊÉ/ÊÉ 	Near-close near-back rounded vowel\n" +
"Schwa 	boor 9\n" +
"ÉÉ/ÉÉ 	Open-mid front unrounded vowel\n" +
"Schwa 	fair 10\n" +
"\n" +
"Notes:\n" +
"\n" +
"It is the vowels that differ most from region to region.\n" +
"\n" +
"Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to American English, General American accent; the second corresponds to British English, Received Pronunciation.\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with /É/ or /É/.\n" +
"   2. Many dialects of North American English do not have this vowel. See Cot-caught merger.\n" +
"   3. The North American variation of this sound is a rhotic vowel.\n" +
"   4. Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels. For them, roses and Rosa's are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is schwa /É/.\n" +
"   5. This sound is often transcribed with /i/ or with /ɪ/.\n" +
"   6. The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oÊ/ are monophthongal for many General American speakers, as /eË/ and /oË/.\n" +
"   7. The letter <U> can represent either /u/ or the iotated vowel /ju/. In BRP, if this iotated vowel /ju/ occurs after /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to /ʨ/, /Ê¥/, /É/ and /Ê/ respectively, as in tune, during, sugar, and azure. In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the /ju/ is followed by r, with the result that /(t, d,s, z)jur/ turn to /tÊÉ/, /dÊÉ/, /ÊÉ/ and /ÊÉ/ respectively, as in nature, verdure, sure, and treasure.\n" +
"   8. Vowel length plays a phonetic role in the majority of English dialects, and is said to be phonemic in a few dialects, such as Australian English and New Zealand English. In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance General American, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as long vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable. Before the Great Vowel Shift, vowel length was phonemically contrastive.\n" +
"   9. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, this sound may be, instead of /ÊÉ/, /É:/. See pour-poor merger.\n" +
"  10. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, the schwa offglide of /ÉÉ/ may be dropped, monophthising and lengthening the sound to /É:/.\n" +
"\n" +
"See also\n" +
"\n" +
"    * International Phonetic Alphabet for English for more vowel charts.\n" +
"\n" +
"Consonants\n" +
"\n" +
"This is the English Consonantal System using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).\n" +
"  	bilabial 	labio-\n" +
"dental 	dental 	alveolar 	post-\n" +
"alveolar 	palatal 	velar 	glottal\n" +
"plosive 	p  b 	  	  	t  d 	  	  	k  É¡ 	 \n" +
"nasal 	m 	  	  	n 	  	  	Å 1 	 \n" +
"flap 	  	  	  	ɾ 2 	  	  	  	 \n" +
"fricative 	  	f  v 	θ  ð 3 	s  z 	Ê  Ê 4 	ç 5 	x 6 	h\n" +
"affricate 	  	  	  	  	tÊ  dÊ 4 	  	  	 \n" +
"approximant 	  	  	  	ɹ 4 	  	j 	  	 \n" +
"lateral approximant 	  	  	  	l 	  	  	  	 \n" +
"  	labial-velar\n" +
"approximant 	Ê  w 7\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. The velar nasal [Å] is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /k/ and /g/. In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in syllable codas.\n" +
"   2. The alveolar flap [ɾ] is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in North American English and Australian English.[30] This is the sound of tt or dd in the words latter and ladder, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English. In some accents such as Scottish English and Indian English it replaces /ɹ/. This is the same sound represented by single r in most varieties of Spanish.\n" +
"   3. In some dialects, such as Cockney, the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ are usually merged with /f/ and /v/, and in others, like African American Vernacular English, /ð/ is merged with dental /d/. In some Irish varieties, /θ/ and /ð/ become the corresponding dental plosives, which then contrast with the usual alveolar plosives.\n" +
"   4. The sounds /Ê/, /Ê/, and /ɹ/ are labialised in some dialects. Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed. Most speakers of General American realize <r> (always rhoticized) as the retroflex approximant /É»/, whereas the same is realized in Scottish English, etc. as the alveolar trill.\n" +
"   5. The voiceless palatal fricative /ç/ is in most accents just an allophone of /h/ before /j/; for instance human /çjuËmÉn/. However, in some accents (see this), the /j/ is dropped, but the initial consonant is the same.\n" +
"   6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /lÉx/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [dÉkxÉ]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.\n" +
"   7. Voiceless w [Ê] is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English. In most other dialects it is merged with /w/, in some dialects of Scots it is merged with /f/.\n" +
"\n" +
"Voicing and aspiration\n" +
"\n" +
"Voicing and aspiration of stop consonants in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * Voiceless plosives and affricates (/ p/, / t/, / k/, and / tÊ/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable â compare pin [pʰɪn] and spin [spɪn], crap [kʰɹ̥æp] and scrap [skɹæp].\n" +
"          o In some dialects, aspiration extends to unstressed syllables as well.\n" +
"          o In other dialects, such as Indo-Pakistani English, all voiceless stops remain unaspirated.\n" +
"    * Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.\n" +
"    * Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) â examples: tap [tʰæpÌ], sack [sækÌ].\n" +
"    * Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of American English) â examples: sad [sædÌ¥], bag [bæɡÌ]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.\n" +
"\n" +
"Supra-segmental features\n" +
"\n" +
"Tone groups\n" +
"\n" +
"English is an intonation language. This means that the pitch of the voice is used syntactically, for example, to convey surprise and irony, or to change a statement into a question.\n" +
"\n" +
"In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"    - /duË juË niËd ËÉnɪËθɪÅ/ Do you need anything?\n" +
"    - /aɪ dÉÊnt | nÉÊ/ I don't, no\n" +
"    - /aɪ dÉÊnt nÉÊ/ I don't know (contracted to, for example, - /aɪ dÉÊnÉÊ/ or /aɪ dÉnÉÊ/ I dunno in fast or colloquial speech that de-emphasises the pause between don't and know even further)\n" +
"\n" +
"Characteristics of intonation\n" +
"\n" +
"English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( Ë ) sign either before (as in IPA, Oxford English Dictionary, or Merriam-Webster dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls. In general, for a two-syllable word in English, it can be broadly said that if it is a noun or an adjective, the first syllable is accentuated; but if it is a verb, the second syllable is accentuated.\n" +
"\n" +
"Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"    That | was | the | best | thing | you | could | have | done!\n" +
"\n" +
"Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words best and done, which are stressed. Best is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.\n" +
"\n" +
"The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make. For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"    John hadn't stolen that money. (... Someone else had.)\n" +
"    John hadn't stolen that money. (... You said he had. or ... Not at that time, but later he did.)\n" +
"    John hadn't stolen that money. (... He acquired the money by some other means.)\n" +
"    John hadn't stolen that money. (... He had stolen some other money.)\n" +
"    John hadn't stolen that money. (... He stole something else.)\n" +
"\n" +
"Also\n" +
"\n" +
"    I didn't tell her that. (... Someone else told her.)\n" +
"    I didn't tell her that. (... You said I did. or ... But now I will!)\n" +
"    I didn't tell her that. (... I didn't say it; she could have inferred it, etc.)\n" +
"    I didn't tell her that. (... I told someone else.)\n" +
"    I didn't tell her that. (... I told her something else.)\n" +
"\n" +
"This can also be used to express emotion:\n" +
"\n" +
"    Oh really? (...I didn't know that)\n" +
"    Oh really? (...I disbelieve you)\n" +
"\n" +
"The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic change of pitch. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the rising pitch and the falling pitch, although the fall-rising pitch and/or the rise-falling pitch are sometimes used. In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty. This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positiveânegative opposition; thus, falling pitch means \"polarity known\", while rising pitch means \"polarity unknown\". This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions. For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"    When do you want to be paid?\n" +
"    Now? (Rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: \"Can I be paid now?\" or \"Do you desire to be paid now?\")\n" +
"    Now. (Falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: \"I choose to be paid now.\")\n" +
"\n" +
"Grammar\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: English grammar\n" +
"\n" +
"English grammar has minimal inflection compared with most other Indo-European languages. For example, Modern English, unlike Modern German or Dutch and the Romance languages, lacks grammatical gender and adjectival agreement. Case marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in pronouns. The patterning of strong (e.g. speak/spoke/spoken) versus weak verbs inherited from its Germanic origins has declined in importance in modern English, and the remnants of inflection (such as plural marking) have become more regular.\n" +
"\n" +
"At the same time, the language has become more analytic, and has developed features such as modal verbs and word order as rich resources for conveying meaning. Auxiliary verbs mark constructions such as questions, negative polarity, the passive voice and progressive tenses.\n" +
"\n" +
"Vocabulary\n" +
"\n" +
"The English vocabulary has changed considerably over the centuries.[31]\n" +
"\n" +
"Germanic words (generally words of Old English or to a lesser extent Norse origin) which include all the basics such as pronouns (I, my, you, it) and conjunctions (and, or, but) tend to be shorter than the Latinate words of English, and more common in ordinary speech. The longer Latinate words are often regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive or superfluous use of Latinate words is considered at times to be either pretentious (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of \"apprehending the suspect\") or an attempt to obfuscate an issue. George Orwell's essay \"Politics and the English Language\" is critical of this, as well as other perceived abuses of the language.\n" +
"\n" +
"An English speaker is in many cases able to choose between Germanic and Latinate synonyms: come or arrive; sight or vision; freedom or liberty. In some cases there is a choice between a Germanic derived word (oversee), a Latin derived word (supervise), and a French word derived from the same Latin word (survey). The richness of the language arises from the variety of different meanings and nuances such synonyms harbour, enabling the speaker to express fine variations or shades of thought. Familiarity with the etymology of groups of synonyms can give English speakers greater control over their linguistic register. See: List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents.\n" +
"\n" +
"An exception to this and a peculiarity perhaps unique to English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from, and unrelated to, those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French-derived one. Examples include: deer and venison; cow and beef; swine/pig and pork, or sheep and mutton. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion, where a French-speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English-speaking lower classes.\n" +
"\n" +
"In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a courtroom or an encyclopedia article. However, there are other Latinate words that are used normally in everyday speech and do not sound formal; these are mainly words for concepts that no longer have Germanic words, and are generally assimilated better and in many cases do not appear Latinate. For instance, the words mountain, valley, river, aunt, uncle, move, use, push and stay are all Latinate.\n" +
"\n" +
"English is noted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity.[citation needed][weasel words] English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words and phrases that often come into common usage. Examples of this phenomenon include: cookie, Internet and URL (technical terms), as well as genre, über, lingua franca and amigo (imported words/phrases from French, German, modern Latin, and Spanish, respectively). In addition, slang often provides new meanings for old words and phrases. In fact, this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also: sociolinguistics.\n" +
"\n" +
"Number of words in English\n" +
"\n" +
"English has an extraordinarily rich vocabulary and willingness to absorb new words. As the General Explanations at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary states:\n" +
"\n" +
"    The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.\n" +
"\n" +
"The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no Academy to define officially accepted words. Neologisms are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology and other fields, and new slang is constantly developed. Some of these new words enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might or might not be widely considered as \"English\".\n" +
"\n" +
"The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2) includes over 600,000 definitions, following a rather inclusive policy:\n" +
"\n" +
"    It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).[32]\n" +
"\n" +
"The editors of Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (475,000 main headwords) in their preface, estimate the number to be much higher. It is estimated that about 25,000 words are added to the language each year.[33]\n" +
"\n" +
"Word origins\n" +
"Influences in English vocabulary\n" +
"Influences in English vocabulary\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: Lists of English words of international origin\n" +
"\n" +
"One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are Germanic (mostly Old English) and those which are \"Latinate\" (Latin-derived, either directly from Norman French or other Romance languages).\n" +
"\n" +
"Numerous sets of statistics have been proposed to demonstrate the various origins of English vocabulary. None, as yet, are considered definitive by a majority of linguists.\n" +
"\n" +
"A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd ed.) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973)[34] that estimated the origin of English words as follows:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * Langue d'oïl, including French and Old Norman: 28.3%\n" +
"    * Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%\n" +
"    * Other Germanic languages (including words directly inherited from Old English): 25%\n" +
"    * Greek: 5.32%\n" +
"    * No etymology given: 4.03%\n" +
"    * Derived from proper names: 3.28%\n" +
"    * All other languages contributed less than 1% (e.g. Arabic-English loanwords)\n" +
"\n" +
"A survey by Joseph M. Williams in Origins of the English Language of 10,000 words taken from several thousand business letters[35] gave this set of statistics:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * French (langue d'oïl), 41%\n" +
"    * \"Native\" English, 33%\n" +
"    * Latin, 15%\n" +
"    * Danish, 2%\n" +
"    * Dutch, 1%\n" +
"    * Other, 10%\n" +
"\n" +
"However, 83% of the 1,000 most-common English words are Anglo-Saxon in origin. [36]\n" +
"\n" +
"Dutch origins\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: List of English words of Dutch origin\n" +
"\n" +
"Words describing the navy, types of ships, and other objects or activities on the water are often from Dutch origin. Yacht (Jacht) and cruiser (kruiser) are examples.\n" +
"\n" +
"French origins\n" +
"\n" +
"    Main article: List of French phrases used by English speakers\n" +
"\n" +
"There are many words of French origin in English, such as competition, art, table, publicity, police, role, routine, machine, force, and many others that have been and are being anglicised; they are now pronounced according to English rules of phonology, rather than French. A large portion of English vocabulary is of French or Oïl language origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest.\n";


var greek =
"Îλλάδα\n" +
"ÎÏÏ Ïη ÎικιÏαίδεια, Ïην ελεÏθεÏη εγκÏκλοÏαίδεια\n" +
"Îλληνική ÎημοκÏαÏία\n" +
"	\n" +
"Σημαία	ÎθνÏÏημο\n" +
"ÎÎ¸Î½Î¹ÎºÏ ÏÏνθημα: ÎλεÏθεÏία ή ÎάναÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎθνικÏÏ ÏμνοÏ: á½Î¼Î½Î¿Ï Îµá¼°Ï Ïὴν á¼Î»ÎµÏθεÏίαν\n" +
"\n" +
"ΠÏÏÏεÏοÏÏα	Îθήνα \n" +
"38.01.36N 23.44.00E\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎεγαλÏÏεÏη ÏÏλη	Îθήνα\n" +
"ÎÏίÏÎ·Î¼ÎµÏ Î³Î»ÏÏÏεÏ	Îλληνική\n" +
"ΠολίÏεÏμα\n" +
"\n" +
"ΠÏÏεδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏίαÏ\n" +
"ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ	ΠÏοεδÏεÏÏμενη\n" +
"ÎοινοβοÏλεÏÏική ÎημοκÏαÏία\n" +
"ÎάÏÎ¿Î»Î¿Ï Î Î±ÏοÏλιαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏνÏÏανÏÎ¯Î½Î¿Ï ÎαÏαμανλήÏ\n" +
"ÎνεξαÏÏηÏία\n" +
"- ÎηÏÏÏθηκε\n" +
"- ÎναγνÏÏίÏÏηκε\n" +
"\n" +
"25 ÎαÏÏίοÏ, 1821\n" +
"1828\n" +
"ÎκÏαÏη\n" +
" - ΣÏνολο\n" +
" - ÎεÏÏ (%)	 \n" +
"131.940 km² (94ηη)\n" +
"%0.86\n" +
"ΠληθÏÏμÏÏ\n" +
" - ÎκÏίμηÏη 2006\n" +
" - ÎÏογÏαÏή 2001\n" +
" - ΠÏκνÏÏηÏα	 \n" +
"11.120.000 [1] (72ηη)\n" +
"10.964.020\n" +
"83.1 κάÏ./km² (87ηη)\n" +
"Î.Î.Π.\n" +
" - ÎλικÏ\n" +
" - ÎαÏά κεÏαλή	ÎκÏίμηÏη 2007\n" +
"$305,595 διÏ. (37η)\n" +
"$27,360 (27η)\n" +
"ÎÏμιÏμα	ÎÏÏÏ\n" +
"(â¬)\n" +
"ÎÏνη ÏÏαÏ\n" +
" - ÎεÏινή ÏÏα	(UTC+2)\n" +
"(UTC+3)\n" +
"Internet TLD	.gr\n" +
"ÎÏδικÏÏ ÎºÎ»Î®ÏηÏ	+30\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα (αÏÏαÎζοÏÏα: á¼Î»Î»Î¬Ï, εÏίÏημα: Îλληνική ÎημοκÏαÏία), είναι ÏÏÏα ÏÏην νοÏιοαναÏολική ÎÏÏÏÏη, ÏÏο νοÏιÏÏεÏο άκÏο ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ±Î»ÎºÎ±Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏεÏÏονήÏοÏ, ÏÏην ÎναÏολική ÎεÏÏγειο. ΣÏνοÏεÏει ÏÏην ξηÏά, βÏÏεια με Ïην ΠÏÏην ÎιοÏγκοÏλαβική ÎημοκÏαÏία ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ±ÎºÎµÎ´Î¿Î½Î¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Ïην ÎοÏλγαÏία, ÏÏα βοÏειοδÏÏικά με Ïην Îλβανία και ÏÏα βοÏειοαναÏολικά με Ïην ΤοÏÏκία. ÎÏέÏεÏαι αναÏολικά αÏÏ Ïο Îιγαίο ΠέλαγοÏ, ÏÏα δÏÏικά και νÏÏια αÏÏ Ïο ÎÏνιο και αÏÏ Ïην ÎεÏÏγειο ÎάλαÏÏα. Îίναι Ïο λίκνο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏολιÏιÏμοÏ. Î Îλλάδα έÏει μια μακÏά και ÏλοÏÏια ιÏÏοÏία καÏά Ïην οÏοία άÏκηÏε μεγάλη ÏολιÏιÏμική εÏίδÏαÏη Ïε ÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î·ÏείÏοÏÏ.\n" +
"Î Î¯Î½Î±ÎºÎ±Ï ÏεÏιεÏομένÏν [ÎÏÏκÏÏÏη]\n" +
"1 ÎÏÏοÏία\n" +
"2 ΠολιÏικά\n" +
"2.1 ÎÏμμαÏα\n" +
"2.2 ÎÏβέÏνηÏη\n" +
"3 ΠεÏιÏέÏειεÏ\n" +
"3.1 ÎοÏνά ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"3.2 ÎÎ¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"3.3 ΠοÏάμια ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"3.4 Îλίμα\n" +
"4 Îικονομία\n" +
"5 ÎημογÏαÏία\n" +
"6 ÎνοÏÎ»ÎµÏ Î´ÏÎ½Î¬Î¼ÎµÎ¹Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ΣÏμαÏα αÏÏαλείαÏ\n" +
"6.1 Î¥ÏοÏÏεÏÏική ÏÏÏάÏεÏÏη\n" +
"7 ΠολιÏιÏμÏÏ\n" +
"7.1 ÎÏγίεÏ\n" +
"8 ΣημειÏÏειÏ\n" +
"9 ÎείÏε εÏίÏηÏ\n" +
"10 ÎξÏÏεÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏÏνδέÏειÏ\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎÏÏοÏία\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: Îλληνική ιÏÏοÏία\n" +
"ΣÏÎ¹Ï Î±ÎºÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎ¹Î³Î±Î¯Î¿Ï Î ÎµÎ»Î¬Î³Î¿ÏÏ ÎµÎ¼ÏανίÏÏηκαν οι ÏÏÏÏοι ÏολιÏιÏμοί ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÏÏηÏ, ο ÎινÏικÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ο ÎÏκηναÏκÏÏ. Την εÏοÏή ÏÏν ÏολιÏιÏμÏν αÏÏÏν, ακολοÏθηÏε μία ÏκοÏεινή ÏεÏÎ¯Î¿Î´Î¿Ï ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï Î¼Î­ÏÏι Ïο 800 Ï.Χ., οÏÏÏε εμÏανίζεÏαι Î­Î½Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹Î½Î¿ÏÏÎ¹Î¿Ï ÎλληνικÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ, βαÏιÏÎ¼Î­Î½Î¿Ï ÏÏο μονÏέλο ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏληÏ-κÏάÏοÏÏ. Îίναι ο ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î¸Î± διαδοθεί με Ïον αÏοικιÏÎ¼Ï ÏÏν ακÏÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎεÏογείοÏ, θα ανÏιÏÏαθεί ÏÏην ΠεÏÏική ειÏβολή με ÏοÏÏ Î´Ïο εÏιÏανέÏÏεÏοÏÏ ÎµÎºÏÏοÏÏÏοÏÏ ÏοÏ, Ïην κοÏμοÏολίÏικη και δημοκÏαÏική Îθήνα και Ïην μιλιÏαÏιÏÏική και ολιγαÏÏική ΣÏάÏÏη, θα αÏοÏελέÏει Ïη βάÏη ÏÎ¿Ï ÎλληνιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏολιÏιÏÎ¼Î¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î·Î¼Î¹Î¿ÏÏγηÏαν οι καÏακÏήÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎµÎ³Î¬Î»Î¿Ï ÎλεξάνδÏοÏ, θα εÏηÏεάÏει ÏÏ Î­Î½Î± Î²Î±Î¸Î¼Ï Ïην ÏολιÏιÏμική ÏÏÏιογνÏμία ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏζανÏÎ¹Î½Î®Ï ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ αÏγÏÏεÏα θα ÏÏÏοδοÏήÏει Ïην ÎναγέννηÏη ÏÏην ÎÏÏÏÏη.\n" +
"ΣÏÏαÏιÏÏικά έÏανε δÏναμη Ïε ÏÏγκÏιÏη με Ïη ΡÏμαÏκή αÏÏοκÏαÏοÏία μέÏÏι ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ±ÏακÏήθηκε Ïελικά αÏÏ ÏοÏÏ Î¡ÏμαίοÏÏ Ïο 146 Ï.Χ., αν και ο ÎλληνικÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ Ïελικά καÏέκÏηÏε Ïο ΡÏμαÏÎºÏ ÏÏÏÏο ζÏήÏ. Îι ΡÏμαίοι αναγνÏÏιÏαν και θαÏμαÏαν Ïον ÏλοÏÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏολιÏιÏμοÏ, Ïον μελέÏηÏαν βαθιά και έγιναv ÏÏνειδηÏά ÏÏνεÏιÏÏÎ­Ï ÏοÏ. ÎιέÏÏÏαν εÏίÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ μεγάλο μέÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î±ÏÏÎ±Î¹Î¿ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î³ÏαμμαÏείαÏ. Îν και ήÏαν μÏνο ένα μέÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î¡ÏμαÏÎºÎ®Ï Î±ÏÏοκÏαÏοÏίαÏ, ο ελληνικÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ Î¸Î± ÏÏνέÏιζε να δεÏÏÏζει ÏÏην ÎναÏολική ÎεÏÏγειο, και ÏÏαν Ïελικά η ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏία ÏÏÏίÏÏηκε ÏÏα δÏο, η αναÏολική ή ÎÏζανÏινή ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏία με ÏÏÏÏεÏοÏÏα Ïην ÎÏνÏÏανÏινοÏÏολη, θα είÏε κÏÏίÏÏ Î»ÏÎ³Ï Î³Î»ÏÏÏÎ±Ï Î­Î½Ïονο Ïον ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏ ÏαÏακÏήÏα. ÎÏÏ Ïον 4ο μέÏÏι Ïον 15ο αιÏνα, η ÎναÏολική ΡÏμαÏκή ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏία εÏέζηÏε εÏιθέÏÎµÎ¹Ï 11 αιÏνÏν αÏÏ Î´ÏÏικά και αναÏολικά, μέÏÏι ÏÎ¿Ï Î· ÎÏνÏÏανÏινοÏÏολη έÏεÏε ÏÏÎ¹Ï 29 ÎαÎÎ¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï 1453 ÏÏα ÏέÏια ÏÎ·Ï ÎθÏÎ¼Î±Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏίαÏ. ΣÏαδιακά Ïο ÎÏζάνÏιο καÏακÏήθηκε ολÏκληÏο μέÏα ÏÏον 15ο αιÏνα.\n" +
"Î ÎθÏμανική κÏÏιαÏÏία ÏÏνεÏίÏÏηκε μέÏÏι Ïο 1821 ÏÎ¿Ï Î¿Î¹ ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½ÎµÏ ÎºÎ®ÏÏξαν Ïην ανεξαÏÏηÏία ÏοÏÏ. Î Îλληνική ÎÏανάÏÏαÏη ÏÎ¿Ï 1821 έληξε Ïο 1828. Το 1830 αναγνÏÏίζεÏαι η ανεξαÏÏηÏία ÏÎ¿Ï Î½Î­Î¿Ï ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÎºÏάÏοÏÏ. ÎγκαθιδÏÏθηκε μοναÏÏία Ïο 1833. ÎέÏα ÏÏον 19ο και Ïον ÏÏÏιμο 20Ï Î±Î¹Ïνα, η Îλλάδα ÏÏοÏÏάθηÏε να ÏÏοÏαÏÏήÏει ÏÏα εδάÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÏÎ»ÎµÏ ÏÎ¹Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î±ÎºÏμη ανήκαν ÏÏην ÎθÏμανική ÎÏÏοκÏαÏοÏία και είÏαν ÎλληνÏÏÏνο ÏληθÏÏμÏ, ÏÏάγμα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ±ÏάÏεÏε εν μέÏει, εÏεκÏείνονÏÎ±Ï ÏÏαδιακά Ïην έκÏαÏή ÏηÏ, μέÏÏι να ÏÏάÏει Ïο ÏημεÏÎ¹Î½Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î¼Î­Î³ÎµÎ¸Î¿Ï Ïο 1947.\n" +
"ÎεÏά Ïον ÎεÏÏεÏο ΠαγκÏÏμιο ΠÏλεμο ÏÏην Îλλάδα ξέÏÏαÏε εμÏÏÎ»Î¹Î¿Ï ÏÏÎ»ÎµÎ¼Î¿Ï Î¼Î­ÏÏι Ïο 1949. ÎÏγÏÏεÏα, Ïο 1952, η Îλλάδα έγινε Î¼Î­Î»Î¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎΤÎ. ΣÏÎ¹Ï 21 ÎÏÏÎ¹Î»Î¯Î¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï 1967 ο ÏÏÏαÏÏÏ, ÏÏοβοηθοÏÎ¼ÎµÎ½Î¿Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïην κÏβέÏνηÏη ÏÏν ÎΠÎ, ÏήÏε Ïην εξοÏÏία με ÏÏαξικÏÏημα. Îι δικÏαÏοÏÎµÏ ÏÏη ÏÏνεÏεια διαÏÏÏιÏÏηκαν και αÏο Ïον βαÏιλια, Ïον εκδίÏξαν αÏο Ïην ÏÏÏα και καÏήÏγηÏαν Ïη μοναÏÏία. Î ÏÏÏαÏιÏÏική ΧοÏνÏα ÏÏήÏξε η αιÏία δημιοÏÏγίαÏ, μεÏά αÏÏ Î»Î±Î½Î¸Î±ÏμένοÏÏ ÏειÏιÏμοÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎºÎ¼ÎµÏαλλεÏÏηκε η ΤοÏÏκική ÏλεÏÏά, ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏÏÏÎ¹Î±ÎºÎ¿Ï Î¶Î·ÏήμαÏοÏ, Ïο οÏοίο οδήγηÏε ÏÏην καÏάÏÏεÏÏή ÏÎ·Ï Ïο 1974. ÎÏειÏα αÏÏ Î´Î·Î¼Î¿ÏήÏιÏμα για Ïην καÏάÏγηÏη ÏÎ·Ï Î¼Î¿Î½Î±ÏÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÏÎ¹Ï 8 ÎεκεμβÏÎ¯Î¿Ï 1974 Ïο ÏολίÏεÏμα ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï Î¼ÎµÏαÏÏάÏηκε ξανά Ïε αβαÏίλεÏÏη ÎημοκÏαÏία και ÏÏνÏάÏθηκε νέο ÏÏνÏαγμα αÏÏ Ïην ÏέμÏÏη ÎναθεÏÏηÏική ÎοÏλή ÏÎ¿Ï Ïέθηκε Ïε ιÏÏÏ ÏÏÎ¹Ï 11 ÎοÏÎ½Î¯Î¿Ï 1975, Ïο οÏοίο ιÏÏÏει ÏήμεÏα ÏÏÏÏ Î±Î½Î±Î¸ÎµÏÏήθηκε Ïο 1986 και Ïο 2001. Î Îλλάδα έγινε Î¼Î­Î»Î¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÏÏαÏÎºÎ®Ï ÎνÏÏÎ·Ï Ïο 1981 και Î¼Î­Î»Î¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÏÏαÏÎºÎ®Ï ÎÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Î½Î¿Î¼Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÎομιÏμαÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎνÏÏÎ·Ï (ÎÎÎ) γνÏÏÏÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏ Î¶ÏÎ½Î·Ï ÎµÏÏÏ, Ïο 2001.\n" +
"Îλληνική ιÏÏοÏία \n" +
"ÎÏκλαδικÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ	(3η ÏιλιεÏία Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎινÏικÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ	(3000-1450 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎÏκηναÏκÏÏ ÏολιÏιÏμÏÏ	(1600-1100 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎεÏμεÏÏική εÏοÏή	(1100-800 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎÏÏαÏκή εÏοÏή	(800-500 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎλαÏική εÏοÏή	(500 Ï.Χ.- 323 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎλληνιÏÏική εÏοÏή	(323-146 Ï.Χ.)\n" +
"ΡÏμαÏκή ÏεÏίοδοÏ	(146 Ï.Χ.-330 μ.Χ.)\n" +
"ÎÏζανÏινή ÏεÏίοδοÏ	(330-1453)\n" +
"ÎθÏμανική ÏεÏίοδοÏ	(1453-1821)\n" +
"ÎεÏÏεÏη Îλλάδα	(1821 έÏÏ ÏήμεÏα)\n" +
"ΣÏεÏικά\n" +
"ÎÏÏαία ελληνική γÏαμμαÏεία\n" +
"Îλληνική γλÏÏÏα\n" +
"ÎνομαÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÎλλήνÏν\n" +
"\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ΠολιÏικά\n" +
"\n" +
"Το ΣÏνÏαγμα ÏÎ¿Ï 1975 ÏεÏιέÏει εκÏÎµÎ½ÎµÎ¯Ï ÎµÎ³Î³ÏήÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÏÏν ελεÏθεÏιÏν και ÏÏν δικαιÏμάÏÏν ÏÎ¿Ï ÏολίÏη, ελεÏθεÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ δικαιÏμαÏα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ½Î¹ÏÏÏθηκαν ÏεÏαιÏέÏÏ Î¼Îµ Ïην αναθεÏÏηÏη ÏÎ¿Ï 2001. Îίναι ÏαÏακÏηÏιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏÏι καÏά Ïην αναθεÏÏηÏη αÏÏή καÏοÏÏÏÏθηκαν, για ÏÏÏÏη ÏοÏά ÏÏνÏαγμαÏικά, ÏένÏε ανεξάÏÏηÏÎµÏ Î±ÏÏέÏ, οι ÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÎµÎº ÏÏν οÏοίÏν (ΣÏνήγοÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î Î¿Î»Î¯Ïη, ÎÏÏή ÎιαÏÏάλιÏÎ·Ï ÎÏομικÏν ÎικαιÏμάÏÏν και ÎÏÏή ΠÏοÏÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï Î ÏοÏÏÏικÏν ÎεδομένÏν) είναι ÏÎ±Î³Î¼Î­Î½ÎµÏ ÏÏην ÏÏοÏÏαÏία και διαÏÏάλιÏη ÏÏν αÏομικÏν δικαιÏμάÏÏν. Î Îλλάδα είναι εÏίÏÎ·Ï Î¼Î­Î»Î¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÏÏαÏÎºÎ®Ï Î£ÏμβαÏÎ·Ï Î³Î¹Î± Ïα ÎικαιÏμαÏα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎνθÏÏÏοÏ.\n" +
"Σε ÏολιÏÎµÎ¹Î±ÎºÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ οÏγανÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÎµÏίÏεδο, Ïο ΣÏνÏαγμα διακÏίνει ÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÎµÎ¾Î¿ÏÏίεÏ: Ïη νομοθεÏική, Ïην εκÏελεÏÏική και Ïη δικαÏÏική. ΣÏη νομοθεÏική μεÏέÏοÏν ο ΠÏÏεδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ η ÎοÏλή· ÏÏην εκÏελεÏÏική ο ΠÏÏεδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ η ÎÏβέÏνηÏη, ÎµÎ½Ï Î· δικαÏÏική εξοÏÏία αÏκείÏαι αÏÏ Ïα δικαÏÏήÏια ÏÏο Ïνομα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î»Î±Î¿Ï.\n" +
"ΠΠÏÏεδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏίαÏ, ιεÏαÏÏικά, βÏίÏκεÏαι ÏÏην κοÏÏÏή ÏÎ·Ï ÎµÎºÏελεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎµÎ¾Î¿ÏÏίαÏ, μεÏέÏει ÏÏη νομοθεÏική με Ïη δημοÏίεÏÏη ÏÏν νÏμÏν και Ïη δÏναÏÏÏηÏα αναÏομÏÎ®Ï ÏηÏιÏÎ¼Î­Î½Î¿Ï Î½Î¿Î¼Î¿ÏÏεδίοÏ, ÎµÎ½Ï Î¿ÏίζεÏαι αÏÏ Ïο ΣÏνÏαγμα ÏÏ ÏÏθμιÏÏÎ®Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÏολιÏεÏμαÏÎ¿Ï [2] . ÎκλέγεÏαι έμμεÏα αÏÏ Ïη ÎοÏλή με διαδοÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏηÏοÏοÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÏÏν μελÏν ÏηÏ, ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î¿ÏÎ¿Î¯ÎµÏ ÎµÏιδιÏκεÏαι η εξαÏÏάλιÏη ÏλειοÏηÏÎ¯Î±Ï 2/3, Ïε ÏÏÏÏη ÏάÏη, και 3/5, Ïε δεÏÏεÏη, ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏνÏÎ»Î¿Ï ÏÏν μελÏν ÏηÏ. Σε ÏεÏίÏÏÏÏη αÏοÏÏÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÏγκένÏÏÏÏÎ·Ï ÏÏν ανÏÏέÏÏ ÏλειοÏηÏιÏν, διαλÏεÏαι η ÎοÏλή, ÏÏοκηÏÏÏÏονÏαι ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ η νέα ÎοÏλή εκλέγει Ïον ΠÏÏεδÏο ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï Î¼Îµ Ïην αÏÏλÏÏη ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÏν μελÏν ÏηÏ, ή και με ÏÏεÏική αν δεν ÏÏγκενÏÏÏθεί η αÏÏλÏÏη ÏλειοÏηÏία. Îι εξοÏÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î ÏοέδÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏεÏιοÏιÏÎ¼Î­Î½ÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¸ÏÏ Î±Ïκεί, κÏÏίÏÏ, ÏελεÏοÏÏγικά καθήκονÏα. ÎλεÏ, ÏÏεδÏν, οι ÏÏÎ¬Î¾ÎµÎ¹Ï ÏοÏ, ÏÏήζοÏν ÏÏοÏÏÏογÏαÏÎ®Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïον ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏÎ³Ï Î® άλλο Î¼Î­Î»Î¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏβέÏνηÏÎ·Ï (ÏÏοÏÏγÏ), ÏÏÏÏ, Ï.Ï., Ïα ÏÏοεδÏικά διαÏάγμαÏα. ÎÏÏ Ïην ÏÏοÏÏέÏÏη ÏÏοÏÏÏογÏαÏÎ®Ï ÎµÎ¾Î±Î¹ÏοÏνÏαι ÏηÏά ελάÏιÏÏÎµÏ ÏÏÎ¬Î¾ÎµÎ¹Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î ÏοέδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏοβλέÏονÏαι αÏÏ Ïο ΣÏνÏαγμα, ÏÏÏÏ Î¿ διοÏιÏμÏÏ ÏÏν ÏÏαλλήλÏν ÏÎ·Ï Î ÏοεδÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏίαÏ. ΠθηÏεία ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏενÏαεÏÎ®Ï Î¼Îµ δικαίÏμα εÏÎ±Î½ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î®Ï Î³Î¹Î± μία ακÏμη ÏοÏά.\n" +
"ΠνομοθεÏική εξοÏÏία αÏκείÏαι αÏÏ Ïη ÎοÏλή, Ïα μέλη ÏÎ·Ï Î¿ÏÎ¿Î¯Î±Ï ÎµÎºÎ»Î­Î³Î¿Î½Ïαι με καθολική μÏÏÏική ÏηÏοÏοÏία για ÏεÏÏαεÏή θηÏεία. ÎÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï Î¼ÏοÏεί να κηÏÏÏθοÏν νÏÏίÏεÏα για έκÏακÏοÏÏ Î»ÏγοÏÏ, ÏÏÏÏ Î±ÏÏοί οÏίζονÏαι ÏÏο ΣÏνÏαγμα. ÎεÏά, ÏάνÏÏÏ, Ïο 1975 η ÏÏοκήÏÏξη ÏÏÏÏÏÏν εκλογÏν αÏοÏελεί Ïον κανÏνα, με Ïην εÏίκληÏη, ÏÏνήθÏÏ, αÏÏ ÏÎ¹Ï Î±ÏεÏÏÏÎ¼ÎµÎ½ÎµÏ ÎºÏβεÏνήÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î¹Î´Î¹Î±Î¶Î¿ÏÏÎ·Ï ÏημαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎµÎ¸Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î¸Î­Î¼Î±ÏοÏ. Î Îλληνική ÎημοκÏαÏία ÏÏηÏιμοÏοιεί για Ïην ανάδειξη ÏÏν βοÏλεÏÏÏν ένα ÏÏνθεÏο ενδÏναμÏμένο ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î¹ÎºÏ ÏÏÏÏημα Î±Î½Î±Î»Î¿Î³Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎµÎºÏÏοÏÏÏηÏÎ·Ï (ενιÏÏÏμένη αναλογική), ÏÎ¿Ï Î±ÏοθαÏÏÏνει Ïη δημιοÏÏγία ÏολÏκομμαÏικÏν ÎÏβεÏνήÏεÏν ÏÏνεÏγαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ εÏιÏÏέÏει ιÏÏÏÏή κÏβέÏνηÏη ÏλειοÏηÏίαÏ, ακÏμα και αν Ïο ÏÏÏÏο κÏμμα ÏÏÏεÏεί ÏÎ·Ï ÏλειοÏηÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÏν ÏήÏÏν. Îια να μÏοÏεί να καÏαλάβει μία αÏÏ ÏÎ¹Ï 300 βοÏλεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï Î­Î´ÏÎµÏ Î­Î½Î± κÏμμα, ÏÏέÏει να έÏει λάβει ÏοÏλάÏιÏÏον Ïο 3% ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏνÏÎ»Î¿Ï ÏÏν ÏήÏÏν, ÎµÎ½Ï Î¼Îµ Ïον ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î¹ÎºÏ Î½Ïμο, ÏÎ¿Ï Î¸Î± εÏαÏμοÏÏεί, για ÏÏÏÏη ÏοÏά, ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î¼ÎµÏά Ïο 2004 βοÏλεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï, Ïο ÏÏÏÏο κÏμμα εξαÏÏαλίζει αÏÏλÏÏη ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÏη ÎοÏλή με ÏοÏοÏÏÏ 41%.\n" +
"ΠεκÏελεÏÏική εξοÏÏία αÏκείÏαι αÏÏ Ïην ÎÏβέÏνηÏη, κεÏαλή ÏÎ·Ï Î¿ÏÎ¿Î¯Î±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ο ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ, Ïο ιÏÏÏÏÏÏεÏο ÏÏÏÏÏÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏολιÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÏÏÏήμαÏοÏ. Î ÎÏβέÏνηÏη καθοÏίζει και καÏεÏθÏνει Ïη γενική ÏολιÏική ÏÎ·Ï Î§ÏÏÎ±Ï [3], εÏαÏμÏζει Ïην ÏολιÏική, ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ³ÎºÏίνει μέÏÏ ÏÏν νομοθεÏικÏν ÏÏάξεÏν η ÎοÏλή, αλλά ÏαÏÏÏÏÏονα μεÏέÏει ÏÏη νομοÏαÏαÏκεÏαÏÏική διαδικαÏία, μέÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏνÏÎ±Î¾Î·Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏοÏθηÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÎ¿Ï ÏήÏιÏη ÏÏν νομοÏÏεδίÏν. Î ÎÏβέÏνηÏη με βάÏη Ïην αÏÏή ÏÎ·Ï Î´ÎµÎ´Î·Î»ÏÎ¼Î­Î½Î·Ï Î¿Ïείλει να αÏολαÏει ÏÎ·Ï ÎµÎ¼ÏιÏÏοÏÏÎ½Î·Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎοÏλήÏ, να έÏει λάβει δηλαδή ÏήÏο εμÏιÏÏοÏÏÎ½Î·Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïην ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÏν ÎοÏλεÏÏÏν. ΣÏα ÏλαίÏια δε ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏγÏÏÎ¿Î½Î·Ï ÎºÎ¿Î¼Î¼Î±ÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î´Î·Î¼Î¿ÎºÏαÏίαÏ, η ÎÏβέÏνηÏη κÏÏιαÏÏεί και ÏÏη νομοθεÏική λειÏοÏÏγία, καθÏÏ ÏÏοέÏÏεÏαι αÏÏ Ïο ÎÏμμα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ»Î­Î³Ïει Ïην ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÎ¿Ï ÎοινοβοÏλίοÏ, καθιÏÏÏνÏαÏ, έÏÏι, Ïην ÏήÏιÏη ÏÏν νÏμÏν μια ÏÏÏική, καÏά κανÏνα, διαδικαÏία. ÎÏÎ³Ï Î´Îµ ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ½Î®Ï Î­ÏÏ ÎºÎ±ÏαÏÏηÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎµÏίκληÏÎ·Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ¿Î¼Î¼Î±ÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏειθαÏÏίαÏ, η δÏναÏÏÏηÏα διαÏÏÎ½Î¯Î±Ï ÎºÏβεÏνηÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î²Î¿ÏλεÏÏή με Ïην ÎÏβέÏνηÏη ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏηÏίζει θεÏÏείÏαι ÏÏάνιο ÏαινÏμενο. Σε έκÏακÏÎµÏ ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î¼ÏοÏεί η ÎÏβέÏνηÏη να εκδίδει ΠÏÎ¬Î¾ÎµÎ¹Ï ÎομοθεÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î ÎµÏιεÏομένοÏ. Îι Π.Î.Π. έÏοÏν ιÏÏÏ Î½ÏÎ¼Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ οÏείλοÏν να εγκÏιθοÏν ενÏÏÏ 40 ημεÏÏν αÏÏ Ïη ÎοÏλή.\n" +
"ΠΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ Î±ÏοÏελεί Ïην κεÏαλή ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÏβέÏνηÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹, με βάÏη Ïο ΣÏνÏαγμα, είναι, ÏÏνήθÏÏ (αν και ÏÏι αÏαÏαίÏηÏα), ο αÏÏηγÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î­ÏονÏÎ¿Ï Ïην αÏÏλÏÏη ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÏη ÎοÏλή κÏβεÏνÏνÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÏμμαÏοÏ. ÎάÏει ÏÎ¿Ï Î¬ÏθÏÎ¿Ï 82 ÏÎ¿Ï Î£ÏνÏάγμαÏοÏ, \"ο ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ ÎµÎ¾Î±ÏÏαλίζει Ïην ενÏÏηÏα ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏβέÏνηÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ καÏεÏθÏνει ÏÎ¹Ï ÎµÎ½Î­ÏÎ³ÎµÎ¹Î­Ï ÏηÏ, καθÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏν δημοÏίÏν γενικά ÏÏηÏεÏιÏν για Ïην εÏαÏμογή ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÏβεÏνηÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏολιÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î¼Î­Ïα ÏÏο ÏλαίÏιο ÏÏν νÏμÏν\" [3]. Îι βαÏικÏÏεÏÎµÏ ÎµÎ¾Î¿ÏÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ οι εξήÏ:\n" +
"ΠÏοεδÏεÏει ÏÎ¿Ï Î¥ÏοÏÏÎ³Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î£ÏμβοÏλίοÏ, ÏÏο οÏοίο μεÏέÏει μαζί με ÏοÏÏ Î¥ÏοÏÏγοÏÏ.\n" +
"Îε δέÏμια ÏÏÏÏαÏη ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î¿ÏίζονÏαι και ÏαÏονÏαι αÏÏ Ïον ΠÏÏεδÏο ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï Î¿Î¹ ÏÏοÏÏγοί και οι ÏÏÏÏοÏÏγοί ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏβέÏνηÏηÏ.\n" +
"ÎαθοÏίζει με Ïον οικείο Î¥ÏοÏÏÎ³Ï ÏÎ¹Ï Î±ÏμοδιÏÏηÏÎµÏ ÏÏν ÏÏÏÏοÏÏγÏν.\n" +
"ΠÏοÎÏÏαÏαι ÏεÏÏάÏÏν αÏÏοÏελÏν ÏÏηÏεÏιÏν και γÏαμμαÏειÏν: ÏÎ¿Ï Î Î¿Î»Î¹ÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÎÏαÏÎµÎ¯Î¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î ÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγοÏ, ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏαμμαÏÎµÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏβεÏνήÏεÏÏ, ÏÎ·Ï ÎενÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎομοÏαÏαÏκεÏαÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎÏιÏÏοÏÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎµÎ½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎÏαμμαÏÎµÎ¯Î±Ï Î¤ÏÏοÏ.\n" +
"Îίνει άδεια για Ïη δημοÏίεÏÏη ÏÏην ÎÏημεÏίδα ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏβεÏνήÏεÏÏ Î¿ÏοιοÏδήÏοÏε ÎºÎµÎ¹Î¼Î­Î½Î¿Ï ÏÏέÏει, καÏά Ïο νÏμο, να καÏαÏÏÏιÏθεί Ïε αÏÏήν.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎÏμμαÏα\n" +
"ΠεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏα: ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏν ÏολιÏικÏν κομμάÏÏν\n" +
"ÎεÏά Ïην αÏοκαÏάÏÏαÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï Ïο 1974 (μεÏαÏολίÏεÏÏη) Ïο ÏολιÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏÏÏÏημα κÏÏιαÏÏείÏαι αÏÏ Ïο ÏιλελεÏθεÏο κÏμμα ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ­Î±Ï ÎημοκÏαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Ïο ÏοÏιαλιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Î ÎΣÎÎ (Πανελλλήνιο ΣοÏιαλιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Îίνημα). Îλλα κÏμμαÏα είναι Ïο ÎομμοÏνιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÎÏμμα ÎλλάδαÏ, ο ΣÏναÏÏιÏμÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏιÏÏεÏÎ¬Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ο ÎÎ.Î.Σ..\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎÏβέÏνηÏη\n" +
"ΠεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏα: ÎÏβέÏνηÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ΣÏÎ¹Ï ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï ÏÎ·Ï 7 ÎαÏÏÎ¯Î¿Ï 2004, ÏÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ ÎµÎºÎ»Î­Ïθηκε ο ÎÏνÏÏανÏÎ¯Î½Î¿Ï Î. ÎαÏαμανλήÏ, ÏÏÏεδÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ­Î±Ï ÎημοκÏαÏίαÏ. ÎÏαν η ÏÏÏÏη εκλογική νίκη ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÏμμαÏÎ¿Ï Î¼ÎµÏά αÏÏ 11 ÏÏÏνια. Î ÎαÏÎ±Î¼Î±Î½Î»Î®Ï Î±Î½ÏικαÏέÏÏηÏε Ïον ÎÏνÏÏανÏίνο ΣημίÏη και ÏÏημάÏιÏε δική ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÏβέÏνηÏη. Îι εÏÏÎ¼ÎµÎ½ÎµÏ Î²Î¿ÏλεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï ÏÏοβλέÏονÏαν αÏÏ Ïο ΣÏνÏαγμα για Ïο 2008, ÏμÏÏ Î´Î¹ÎµÎ¾Î®ÏθηÏαν ÏÏÏÏÏα ÏÏÎ¹Ï 16 ΣεÏÏεμβÏÎ¯Î¿Ï 2007. Î¤Î¹Ï ÎµÎºÎ»Î¿Î³Î­Ï ÏÎ·Ï 16Î·Ï ÎºÎ­ÏδιÏε ξανά η ÎÎ. Î Îέα βοÏλή είναι η ÏÏÏÏη ÏενÏακομμαÏική ÎοÏλή Ïα ÏελεÏÏαία ÏÏÏνια και Ïε αÏÏή ÏÏμμεÏέÏοÏν η ÎÎ Ïο ΠÎΣÎÎ, Ïο ÎÎÎ, ο ΣΥ.ΡÎ.ÎΠκαι Ïο ÎÎ.Î.Σ. ΣÏγκεκÏιμένα η ÎΠεξαÏÏάλιÏε Ïο 41.83% και 152 αÏÏ ÏÎ¹Ï 300 ÎδÏεÏ. Το ΠÎΣÎΠεξαÏÏάλιÏε Ïο 38.10 % και 102 ÎδÏεÏ. Το Î.Î.ΠεξαÏÏάλιÏε Ïο 8.15% και 22 έδÏεÏ. ΠΣΥ.ΡÎ.ÎΠεξαÏÏάλιÏε Ïο 5.04% και 14 έδÏÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ­Î»Î¿Ï Ïο ÎÎ.Î.Σ εξαÏÏάλιÏε Ïο 3.80% κεÏδίζονÏÎ±Ï 10 έδÏεÏ.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ΠεÏιÏέÏειεÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ΠεÏιÏέÏÎµÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα ÏÏÏίζεÏαι Ïε 13 διοικηÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï Î³Î½ÏÏÏÎ­Ï Ïαν ΠεÏιÏέÏειεÏ, ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î±ÏÏÏίζονÏαι ÏεÏαιÏέÏÏ Ïε 51 ÎομοÏÏ:\n" +
"ÎÏÏική\n" +
"ÎÏÏική\n" +
"ΣÏεÏεά Îλλάδα\n" +
"ÎÏβοια\n" +
"ÎÏÏÏÏανία\n" +
"ΦÏκίδα\n" +
"ΦθιÏÏιδα\n" +
"ÎοιÏÏία\n" +
"ÎενÏÏική Îακεδονία\n" +
"Χαλκιδική\n" +
"Îμαθία\n" +
"ÎιλκίÏ\n" +
"Πέλλα\n" +
"ΠιεÏία\n" +
"ΣέÏÏεÏ\n" +
"ÎεÏÏαλονίκη\n" +
"ÎÏήÏη\n" +
"Χανιά\n" +
"ÎÏάκλειο\n" +
"ÎαÏίθι\n" +
"ΡέθÏμνο\n" +
"ÎναÏολική Îακεδονία και ÎÏάκη\n" +
"Îαβάλα\n" +
"ÎÏάμα\n" +
"Îάνθη\n" +
"ΡοδÏÏη\n" +
"ÎβÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏειÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏα\n" +
"ÎÏάννινα\n" +
"ΠÏέβεζα\n" +
"ÎεÏÏÏÏÏία\n" +
"ÎÏνια νηÏιά\n" +
"ÎέÏκÏÏα\n" +
"ÎεÏαλονιά\n" +
"ÎεÏκάδα\n" +
"ÎάκÏνθοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏειο Îιγαίο\n" +
"ΧίοÏ\n" +
"ÎέÏβοÏ\n" +
"Î£Î¬Î¼Î¿Ï - ÎκαÏία\n" +
"ΠελοÏÏννηÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏκαδία\n" +
"ÎÏγολίδα\n" +
"ÎοÏινθία\n" +
"ÎακÏνία\n" +
"ÎεÏÏηνία\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο Îιγαίο\n" +
"ÎÏκλάδεÏ\n" +
"ÎÏδεκάνηÏα\n" +
"ÎεÏÏαλία\n" +
"ÎαÏδίÏÏα\n" +
"ÎάÏιÏα\n" +
"ÎαγνηÏία\n" +
"ΤÏίκαλα\n" +
"ÎÏÏική Îλλάδα\n" +
"ÎÏαÎα\n" +
"ÎιÏÏλοακαÏνανία\n" +
"Îλεία\n" +
"ÎÏÏική Îακεδονία\n" +
"ΦλÏÏινα\n" +
"ÎÏεβενά\n" +
"ÎαÏÏοÏιά\n" +
"Îοζάνη\n" +
"ÎÏιÏλέον, ÏÏη Îακεδονία ÏÏάÏÏει μία αÏÏÏνομη ÏεÏιοÏή, Ïο Îγιο ÎÏοÏ, μία μοναÏÏική ÏολιÏεία ÏÏÏ Îλληνική κÏÏιαÏÏία. Îι νομοί ÏÏÏίζονÏαι Ïε 147 εÏαÏÏίεÏ, ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î±Î¹ÏοÏνÏαι Ïε 900 δήμοÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ 133 κοινÏÏηÏεÏ. ΠÏιν Ïο 1999, ÏÏήÏÏαν 5.775 οÏγανιÏμοί ÏοÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î±ÏÏοδιοίκηÏηÏ: 361 δήμοι και 5.560 κοινÏÏηÏεÏ, ÏÏοδιαιÏοÏÎ¼ÎµÎ½ÎµÏ Ïε 12.817 οικιÏμοÏÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"Îλβανία\n" +
"\n" +
"Ð.Î.Î.Î.\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎοÏλγαÏία\n" +
"'\n" +
"\n" +
"ΤοÏÏκία\n" +
"\n" +
"EÎÎAΣ\n" +
"AÎHNA\n" +
"ÎεÏÏαλονίκη\n" +
"Îαβάλα\n" +
"ÎλεξανδÏοÏÏολη\n" +
"ÎέÏκÏÏα\n" +
"ÎγοÏμενίÏÏα\n" +
"ÎάÏιÏα\n" +
"ÎÏλοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏάννινα\n" +
"Χαλκίδα\n" +
"ΠάÏÏα\n" +
"ΠειÏαιάÏ\n" +
"ÎλεÏÏίνα\n" +
"ÎαÏÏιο\n" +
"ÎÏάκλειο\n" +
"Πα κ ε δ ο ν ί α\n" +
"ÎÏάκη\n" +
"ÎÏειÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎεÏÏαλία\n" +
"ΣÏεÏεά Îλλάδα\n" +
"ΠελοÏÏννηÏοÏ\n" +
"ÎλÏμÏÎ¿Ï (2917m)\n" +
"ÎεÏκάδα\n" +
"ÎεÏαλονιά\n" +
"ÎήμνοÏ\n" +
"ÎέÏβοÏ\n" +
"ΧίοÏ\n" +
"ΣάμοÏ\n" +
"ΤήνοÏ\n" +
"ÎκαÏία\n" +
"ÎάξοÏ\n" +
"ΣανÏοÏίνη\n" +
"ÎÏÏ\n" +
"ΡÏδοÏ\n" +
"ÎάÏÏαθοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏθηÏα\n" +
"ÎαÏδοÏ\n" +
"Îιγαίον\n" +
"ΠέλαγοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏÏÏον\n" +
"ΠέλαγοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏηÏικÏν ΠέλαγοÏ\n" +
"ÎÏνιον\n" +
"ΠέλαγοÏ\n" +
"ÎεÏÏγειοÏ\n" +
"ÎάλαÏÏα\n" +
"ÎÏήÏη\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎοÏνά ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï Î²Î¿ÏνÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ΠεÏίÏÎ¿Ï Ïο 80% ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ´Î¬ÏοÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ οÏÎµÎ¹Î½Ï Î® λοÏÏδεÏ. Îεγάλο μέÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ξηÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ βÏαÏÏδεÏ, μÏνο 28% ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ´Î¬ÏοÏÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ καλλιεÏγήÏιμο.\n" +
"ÎλÏμÏÎ¿Ï 2917 μ. ÎεÏÏαλία, ÎενÏÏική Îακεδονία (ÎάÏιÏα, ΠιεÏία)\n" +
"ΣμÏÎ»Î¹ÎºÎ±Ï 2637 μ. ÎÏÏεια Î Î¯Î½Î´Î¿Ï (ÎÏάννινα)\n" +
"ÎÏÏÎ±Ï 2524 μ. ÎενÏÏική Îακεδονία (Πέλλα, ΦλÏÏινα, Π.Î.Î.Î.)\n" +
"ÎÏÎ¬Î¼Î¿Ï 2520 μ. ÎÏÏική Îακεδονία (ÎαÏÏοÏιά, ÎÏάννινα, Îλβανία)\n" +
"ÎκιÏνα 2510 μ. ΣÏεÏεά (ΦÏκίδα)\n" +
"ΤÏμÏη 2497 μ. ÎÏÏεια Î Î¯Î½Î´Î¿Ï (ÎÏάννινα)\n" +
"ÎαÏδοÏÏια 2495 μ. ΣÏεÏεά (ΦÏκίδα)\n" +
"Îθαμανικά ÏÏη 2469 μ. ÎÏÏια Î Î¯Î½Î´Î¿Ï (ÎÏÏα)\n" +
"ΠαÏναÏÏÏÏ 2457 μ. ΣÏεÏεά (ΦÏκίδα, ΦθιÏÏιδα)\n" +
"ΨηλοÏείÏÎ·Ï 2456 μ. ÎÏήÏη (ÎÏάκλειο)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"Î ÏÏÏα αÏοÏελείÏαι αÏÏ Î­Î½Î± μεγάλο ηÏειÏÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Ïμήμα, Ïο νÏÏιο άκÏο ÏÏν ÎαλκανίÏν, ενÏμένο με Ïην ÏÏÏην ηÏειÏÏÏική ΠελοÏÏννηÏο, αÏÏ Ïον ÎÏÎ¸Î¼Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎοÏίνθοÏ, και Ïο ÎÏνιο και Îιγαίο ÏέλαγοÏ. ΠΠελοÏÏννηÏÎ¿Ï Ïλέον μεÏά Ïην καÏαÏκεÏή ÏÎ·Ï Î´Î¹ÏÏÏÎ³Î±Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎοÏÎ¯Î½Î¸Î¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏην ÏÏαγμαÏικÏÏηÏα νηÏί. Το Îιγαίο ÏεÏιέÏει ÏολÏάÏιθμα νηÏιά, ανάμεÏά ÏοÏÏ Ïη ΡÏδο, Ïην ÎÏβοια, Ïη ÎέÏβο και Ïα ÏÏμÏλέγμαÏα ÏÏν ÎÏκλάδÏν και ÎÏδεκανήÏÏν. 180 ÏιλιÏμεÏÏα νÏÏια ÏÏν ακÏÏν δεÏÏÏζει η ÎÏήÏη, Ïο ÏέμÏÏο μεγαλÏÏεÏο νηÏί ÏÎ·Ï ÎεÏογείοÏ. Î Îλλάδα έÏει Î¼Î®ÎºÎ¿Ï Î±ÎºÏÏν 15.021 ÏιλιÏμεÏÏα, ÏÎ¿Ï Î¸ÎµÏÏείÏαι εξαιÏεÏικά μεγάλο, και οÏείλεÏαι ÏÏον ÏλοÏÏιο οÏιζÏνÏιο εδαÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Î´Î¹Î±Î¼ÎµÎ»Î¹ÏμÏ, καθÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏο ÏÎ»Î®Î¸Î¿Ï ÏÏν αναÏίθμηÏÏν νηÏιÏν, Ïα οÏοία είναι ÏÎ¬Î½Ï Î±ÏÏ 1500. ÎÏει Î¼Î®ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÏνÏÏÏν ÏÎ¿Ï ÏληÏιάζει Ïα 1.181 ÏιλιÏμεÏÏα.\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎοÏÏÏοÏική εικÏνα ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ÎεÏγÏαÏία ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎÎ¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï Î»Î¹Î¼Î½Ïν ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα έÏει αÏκεÏÎ­Ï Î»Î¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ, οι ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏÎµÏ ÏÏν οÏοίÏν βÏίÏκονÏαι ÏÏο ηÏειÏÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏÎ·Ï Ïμήμα. Îι μεγαλÏÏεÏÎµÏ Î»Î¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ ÏÏην ελληνική εÏικÏάÏεια είναι:\n" +
"ΤÏιÏÏνίδα 96.513 Ï.Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎÏλβη 75.600 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"Îίμνη ÎεγοÏίÏιδα 72.488 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"Îίμνη ÎιÏÏονίδα 45.625 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"Îίμνη ÎοÏÏνεια 42.823 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"ÎικÏή ΠÏέÏÏα (ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏ Ïμήμα) 43.122 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"Îεγάλη ΠÏέÏÏα (ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏ Ïμήμα) 38.325 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"ÎεÏκίνη 37.688 Ï.Ïλμ\n" +
"Î¥ÏάÏÏοÏν εÏίÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ αÏκεÏÎ­Ï ÏεÏνηÏÎ­Ï Î»Î¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ ÎºÏÏίÏÏ Î³Î¹Î± ÏαÏαγÏγή ηλεκÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏεÏμαÏοÏ, ÏÏÏÏ Î· Îίμνη ÎÏεμαÏÏÏν (68.531 Ï.Ïλμ) και η Îίμνη ΠολÏÏÏÏÎ¿Ï (56.793 Ï.Ïλμ).\n" +
"\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ΠοÏάμια ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏκεÏά ÏοÏάμια διαÏÏέοÏν Ïην Îλλάδα, αÏÏ Ïα οÏοίο κανένα δεν είναι ÏλεÏÏιμο. ÎεÏικά αÏÏ Ïα μεγαλÏÏεÏα, Ïα ÎέλÏα ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏημαÏίζοÏν ÏÏην εκÏοή ÏοÏÏ ÏÏÎ¿Ï Ïην θάλαÏÏα αÏοÏελοÏν ÏημανÏικοÏÏ ÏγÏοβιÏÏοÏοÏÏ, ÏÏÏÏ Î±ÏÏοί ÏÎ¿Ï Îλιάκμονα και ÏÎ¿Ï ÎβÏοÏ. ΠοÏαμοί ÏÏÏÏ Î¿ ΠηνειÏÏ ÏÏην ÎεÏÏαλία, ÏδÏοδοÏοÏν Î¼ÎµÎ³Î¬Î»ÎµÏ Î³ÎµÏÏÎ³Î¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎµÎºÏάÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î¼Îµ Ïην βοήθεια καναλιÏν, ÎµÎ½Ï Ïε άλλα έÏοÏν δημιοÏÏγηθεί ÏεÏνηÏÎ­Ï Î»Î¯Î¼Î½ÎµÏ Î³Î¹Î± Ïην λειÏοÏÏγία ÏδÏοηλεκÏÏικÏν εÏγοÏÏαÏίÏν. Îνα αμÏιλεγÏμενο για οικολογικοÏÏ Î»ÏγοÏÏ ÏÏέδιο ÏÏν ÏελεÏÏαίÏν δεκαεÏιÏν, είναι η εκÏÏοÏή ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏελÏÎ¿Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïη νÏÏια Πίνδο για Ïην ανÏιμεÏÏÏιÏη ÏÎ¿Ï ÏδαÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÏοβλήμαÏÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎεÏÏαλίαÏ.\n" +
"ÎκολοÏθεί καÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï ÏÏν μεγαλÏÏεÏÏν Ïε Î¼Î®ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏοÏαμÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ. Το Î¼Î®ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î±Î½Î±Î³ÏάÏεÏαι είναι αÏÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î±ÏÏέÏει Ïην ελληνική εÏικÏάÏεια.\n" +
"ÎÎ»Î¹Î¬ÎºÎ¼Î¿Î½Î±Ï 297 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎÏελÏÎ¿Ï 220 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ΠηνειÏÏ (ÎεÏÏαλίαÏ) 205 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎβÏÎ¿Ï [4] 204 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎέÏÏÎ¿Ï [4] 130 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ΣÏÏÏμÏÎ½Î±Ï [4] 118 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎÏÎ±Î¼Î¹Ï (ÎαλαμάÏ) 115 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎλÏειÏÏ 110 Ïλμ.\n" +
"ÎÏαÏÎ¸Î¿Ï 110 Ïλμ.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"Îλίμα\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα ÏαÏακÏηÏίζεÏαι αÏÏ Ïον μεÏÎ¿Î³ÎµÎ¹Î±ÎºÏ ÏÏÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÏκÏαÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ»Î¯Î¼Î±ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ έÏει ήÏιοÏÏ ÏγÏοÏÏ ÏειμÏÎ½ÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ζεÏÏά ξηÏά καλοκαίÏια. Το κλίμα ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï Î¼ÏοÏεί να διαιÏεθεί Ïε ÏέÏÏεÏÎ¹Ï Î²Î±ÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±ÏηγοÏίεÏ:\n" +
"- ÏγÏÏ Î¼ÎµÏÎ¿Î³ÎµÎ¹Î±ÎºÏ (δÏÏική Îλλάδα, δÏÏική ΠελοÏÏννηÏοÏ, Ïεδινά και ημιοÏεινά ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏείÏοÏ) - ξηÏÏ Î¼ÎµÏÎ¿Î³ÎµÎ¹Î±ÎºÏ (ÎÏκλάδεÏ, ÏαÏαλιακή ÎÏήÏη, ÎÏδεκάνηÏα, αναÏολική ΠελοÏÏννηÏοÏ, ÎÏÏική, ÏÎµÎ´Î¹Î½Î­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÎναÏÎ¿Î»Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î£ÏεÏεάÏ) - ηÏειÏÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ (δÏÏική Îακεδονία, εÏÏÏεÏικά ÏÏίÏεδα ηÏειÏÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎλλάδαÏ, βÏÏÎµÎ¹Î¿Ï ÎβÏοÏ) - οÏÎµÎ¹Î½Ï (οÏÎµÎ¹Î½Î­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï Î¼Îµ ÏÏÏμεÏÏο ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï >1500μ ÏÏη βÏÏεια Îλλάδα, >1800μ ÏÏην κενÏÏική Îλλάδα και >2000μ ÏÏην ÎÏήÏη).\n" +
"Îι θεÏμοκÏαÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏάνια ÏÏεÏÎ²Î¿Î»Î¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏÏÎ¹Ï ÏαÏαθαλάÏÏÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏέÏ. ΣÏÎ¹Ï ÎºÎ»ÎµÎ¹ÏÏÎ­Ï ÎµÏÏÏεÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏÎµÎ´Î¹Î¬Î´ÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏα ÏÏίÏεδα ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÏαÏαÏηÏοÏνÏαι Ïα μεγαλÏÏεÏα θεÏμοκÏαÏιακά εÏÏη -ÏÏÏο εÏήÏια ÏÏο και ημεÏήÏια. Îι ÏιονοÏÏÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÎºÎ¿Î¹Î½Î­Ï ÏÏα οÏεινά αÏÏ Ïα Ïέλη ΣεÏÏεμβÏÎ¯Î¿Ï (ÏÏη βÏÏεια Îλλάδα, Ïέλη ÎκÏÏβÏÎ¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Ïά μέÏο ÏÏο ÏÏην ÏÏÏλοιÏη ÏÏÏα), ÎµÎ½Ï ÏÏÎ¹Ï ÏÎµÎ´Î¹Î½Î­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï Ïιονίζει κÏÏίÏÏ Î±ÏÏ Ïον ÎεκέμβÏιο μέÏÏι Ïα μέÏα ÎαÏÏίοÏ. ÎÏει ÏιονίÏει, ÏάνÏÏÏ, ακÏμα και καÏά μήνα Îάιο ÏÏη ΦλÏÏινα. ΣÏÎ¹Ï ÏαÏαθαλάÏÏÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÏν νηÏιÏÏικÏν ÏεÏιοÏÏν, οι ÏιονοÏÏÏÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÏÏμβαίνοÏν ÏÏανιÏÏεÏα και δεν αÏοÏελοÏν βαÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏαÏακÏηÏιÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ»Î¯Î¼Î±ÏοÏ. Î ÏÏλη ÏÎ·Ï Î¡ÏÎ´Î¿Ï Î­Ïει μέÏο ÏÏο 0,0 μέÏÎµÏ ÏιονÏÏÏÏÏÎ·Ï Ïο ÏÏÏνο. Îι καÏÏÏÎ½ÎµÏ ÎµÏηÏεάζοÏν κÏÏίÏÏ ÏÎ¹Ï ÏÎµÎ´Î¹Î½Î­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ είναι κοινÏÏεÏοι Ïον ÎοÏλιο και Ïον ÎÏγοÏÏÏο. ΣÏάνια, ÏάνÏÏÏ, διαÏκοÏν ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏÎµÏ Î±ÏÏ 3 μέÏεÏ.\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα βÏίÏκεÏαι μεÏÎ±Î¾Ï ÏÏν ÏαÏαλλήλÏν 34Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ 42oÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î²Î¿ÏÎµÎ¯Î¿Ï Î·Î¼Î¹ÏÏαιÏÎ¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ έÏει μεγάλη ηλιοÏάνεια Ïλο ÏÏεδÏν Ïο ÏÏÏνο. ÎεÏÏομεÏέÏÏεÏα ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î´Î¹Î¬ÏοÏÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï ÏαÏοÏÏιάζεÏαι μια μεγάλη Ïοικιλία κλιμαÏικÏν ÏÏÏÏν, ÏάνÏα βέβαια μέÏα ÏÏα ÏλαίÏια ÏÎ¿Ï Î¼ÎµÏÎ¿Î³ÎµÎ¹Î±ÎºÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ»Î¯Î¼Î±ÏοÏ. ÎÏÏÏ Î¿ÏείλεÏαι ÏÏην ÏοÏογÏαÏική διαμÏÏÏÏÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÏÎ¿Ï Î­Ïει Î¼ÎµÎ³Î¬Î»ÎµÏ Î´Î¹Î±ÏοÏÎ­Ï ÏÏομέÏÏÎ¿Ï (ÏÏάÏÏοÏν Î¼ÎµÎ³Î¬Î»ÎµÏ Î¿ÏοÏειÏÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±Ïά Î¼Î®ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎµÎ½ÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ άλλοι οÏεινοί Ïγκοι) και εναλλαγή ξηÏÎ¬Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ θάλαÏÏαÏ. ÎÏÏι αÏÏ Ïο ξηÏÏ ÎºÎ»Î¯Î¼Î± ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ γενικά ÏÎ·Ï Î±Î½Î±ÏÎ¿Î»Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï Î¼ÎµÏαÏίÏÏοÏμε ÏÏο ÏγÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï Î²ÏÏÎµÎ¹Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ δÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎλλάδαÏ. ΤέÏÎ¿Î¹ÎµÏ ÎºÎ»Î¹Î¼Î±ÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï Î´Î¹Î±ÏοÏÎ­Ï ÏÏνανÏÏνÏαι ακÏμη και Ïε ÏÏÏοÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î²ÏίÏκονÏαι Ïε μικÏή αÏÏÏÏαÏη μεÏÎ±Î¾Ï ÏοÏÏ, ÏÏάγμα ÏÎ¿Ï ÏαÏοÏÏιάζεÏαι Ïε Î»Î¯Î³ÎµÏ Î¼Ïνο ÏÏÏÎµÏ Ïε Ïλο Ïον κÏÏμο.\n" +
"ÎÏÏ ÎºÎ»Î¹Î¼Î±ÏÎ¿Î»Î¿Î³Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏλεÏÏÎ¬Ï Ïο έÏÎ¿Ï Î¼ÏοÏεί να ÏÏÏιÏÏεί κÏÏίÏÏ Ïε δÏο εÏοÏέÏ: Την ÏÏÏÏή και βÏοÏεÏή ÏειμεÏινή ÏεÏίοδο ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î±Ïκεί αÏÏ Ïα μέÏα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎκÏÏβÏÎ¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ μέÏÏι Ïο ÏÎ­Î»Î¿Ï ÎαÏÏÎ¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Ïη θεÏμή και άνομβÏη εÏοÏή ÏÎ¿Ï Î´Î¹Î±Ïκεί αÏÏ Ïον ÎÏÏίλιο έÏÏ Ïον ÎκÏÏβÏιο.\n" +
"ÎαÏά Ïην ÏÏÏÏη ÏεÏίοδο οι ÏÏÏÏÏÏεÏοι Î¼Î®Î½ÎµÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ο ÎανοÏάÏÎ¹Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ο ΦεβÏοÏάÏιοÏ, ÏÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ±Ïά μέÏον ÏÏο η μέÏη ελάÏιÏÏη θεÏμοκÏαÏία κÏμαίνεÏαι αÏÏ 5-10 °C ÏÏÎ¹Ï ÏαÏαθαλάÏÏÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏέÏ, αÏÏ 0-5 °C ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î·ÏειÏÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Ïε ÏαμηλÏÏεÏÎµÏ ÏÎ¹Î¼Î­Ï ÎºÎ¬ÏÏ Î±ÏÏ Ïο μηδέν ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î²ÏÏÎµÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏέÏ.\n" +
"Îι βÏοÏÎ­Ï Î±ÎºÏμη και Ïη ÏειμεÏινή ÏεÏίοδο δεν διαÏκοÏν για ÏÎ¿Î»Î»Î­Ï Î·Î¼Î­ÏÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ο οÏÏανÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï Î´ÎµÎ½ μένει ÏÏννεÏιαÏÎ¼Î­Î½Î¿Ï Î³Î¹Î± αÏκεÏÎ­Ï ÏÏνεÏÏÎ¼ÎµÎ½ÎµÏ Î·Î¼Î­ÏεÏ, ÏÏÏÏ ÏÏμβαίνει Ïε Î¬Î»Î»ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î³Î·Ï. Îι ÏειμεÏÎ¹Î½Î­Ï ÎºÎ±ÎºÎ¿ÎºÎ±Î¹ÏÎ¯ÎµÏ Î´Î¹Î±ÎºÏÏÏονÏαι ÏÏÏνά καÏά Ïον ÎανοÏάÏιο και Ïο ÏÏÏÏο δεκαÏενθήμεÏο ÏÎ¿Ï Î¦ÎµÎ²ÏοÏαÏÎ¯Î¿Ï Î±ÏÏ Î·Î»Î¹ÏλοÏÏÏÎµÏ Î·Î¼Î­ÏεÏ, ÏÎ¹Ï Î³Î½ÏÏÏÎ­Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïην αÏÏαιÏÏηÏα ÎλκÏÎ¿Î½Î¯Î´ÎµÏ Î·Î¼Î­ÏεÏ.\n" +
"Î ÏειμεÏινή εÏοÏή είναι γλÏκÏÏεÏη ÏÏα νηÏιά ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎ¹Î³Î±Î¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎ¿Î½Î¯Î¿Ï Î±ÏÏ Ï,Ïι ÏÏη ÎÏÏεια και ÎναÏολική ηÏειÏÏÏική Îλλάδα. ÎαÏά Ïη θεÏμή και άνομβÏη εÏοÏή ο καιÏÏÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏαθεÏÏÏ, ο οÏÏανÏÏ ÏÏεδÏν αίθÏιοÏ, ο Î®Î»Î¹Î¿Ï Î»Î±Î¼ÏεÏÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ δεν βÏέÏει εκÏÏÏ Î±ÏÏ ÏÏάνια διαÏÏήμαÏα με ÏÎ±Î³Î´Î±Î¯ÎµÏ Î²ÏοÏÎ­Ï Î® καÏÎ±Î¹Î³Î¯Î´ÎµÏ Î¼Î¹ÎºÏÎ®Ï Î³ÎµÎ½Î¹ÎºÎ¬ διάÏκειαÏ.\n" +
"ΠθεÏμÏÏεÏη ÏεÏÎ¯Î¿Î´Î¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ Ïο ÏελεÏÏαίο δεκαήμεÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎοÏÎ»Î¯Î¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Ïο ÏÏÏÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏγοÏÏÏÎ¿Ï Î¿ÏÏÏε η μέÏη μεγίÏÏη θεÏμοκÏαÏία κÏμαίνεÏαι αÏÏ 29 °C μέÏÏι 35 °C. ÎαÏά Ïη θεÏμή εÏοÏή οι ÏÏÎ·Î»Î­Ï Î¸ÎµÏμοκÏαÏÎ¯ÎµÏ Î¼ÎµÏÏιάζονÏαι αÏÏ Ïη δÏοÏεÏή θαλάÏÏια αÏÏα ÏÏÎ¹Ï ÏαÏάκÏÎ¹ÎµÏ ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ αÏÏ ÏοÏÏ Î²ÏÏειοÏÏ Î±Î½Î­Î¼Î¿ÏÏ (εÏηÏίεÏ) ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏÏοÏν κÏÏίÏÏ ÏÏο Îιγαίο.\n" +
"Πάνοιξη έÏει μικÏή διάÏκεια, διÏÏι ο μεν ÏειμÏÎ½Î±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏιμοÏ, Ïο δε καλοκαίÏι αÏÏίζει ÏÏÏιμα. Το ÏθινÏÏÏÏο είναι μακÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ θεÏÎ¼Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ¿Î»Î»Î­Ï ÏοÏÎ­Ï ÏαÏαÏείνεÏαι ÏÏη νÏÏια Îλλάδα μέÏÏι Ïα μιÏά ÏÎ¿Ï ÎεκεμβÏίοÏ.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"Îικονομία\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: Îικονομία ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"Î Îλλάδα έÏει μικÏή καÏιÏαλιÏÏική οικονομία, με Ïον δημÏÏιο Ïομέα να ÏÏνειÏÏέÏει ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏο μιÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î.Î.Π.. ΠΤοÏÏιÏμÏÏ Î±ÏοÏελεί μία ÏÎ¿Î»Ï ÏημανÏική βιομηÏανία, ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏνειÏÏέÏει κι αÏÏή Ïε μεγάλο ÏοÏοÏÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î.Î.Π., και εÏίÏÎ·Ï Î±ÏοÏελεί Ïηγή ÏÏναλλάγμαÏοÏ. Το 2004 η μεγαλÏÏεÏη βιομηÏανία ÏÏην Îλλάδα με έÏοδα γÏÏÏ ÏÏα 12 διÏ. εÏÏÏ Î®Ïαν η ÏÏνήθÏÏ ÏÏεÏικά αÏÎ±Î½Î®Ï Î½Î±ÏÏιλία.\n" +
"Ποικονομία βελÏιÏνεÏαι ÏÏαθεÏά Ïα ÏελεÏÏαία ÏÏÏνια, καθÏÏ Î· κÏβέÏνηÏη εÏάÏμοÏε αÏοÏελεÏμαÏική οικονομική ÏολιÏική, ÏÏην ÏÏοÏÏάθεια ÏÎ·Ï Î­Î½ÏÎ±Î¾Î·Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï ÏÏην ζÏνη ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÏÏÏ, Ïην 1 ÎανοÏαÏÎ¯Î¿Ï 2001. ΠαÏάγÏν ÏÎ¿Ï ÏίγοÏÏα βοήθηÏε Ïε αÏÏήν Ïην ÏοÏεία είναι ÏÏι η Îλλάδα είναι αÏοδέκÏÎ·Ï Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿Î½Î¿Î¼Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î²Î¿Î®Î¸ÎµÎ¹Î±Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïην ÎÏÏÏÏαÏκή ÎνÏÏη, ίÏÎ·Ï ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï Î¼Îµ Ïο 3,3% ÏÎ¿Ï Î.Î.Π. Î ÏÏνέÏιÏη ÏÏÏο γενναιÏδÏÏÏν ενιÏÏÏÏεÏν αÏÏ Ïην Î.Î. ÏμÏÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏÏ Î±Î¼ÏιÏβήÏηÏη. ΠδιεÏÏÏνÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÎÏÏÏÏαÏÎºÎ®Ï ÎνÏÏÎ·Ï Î¼Îµ Ïην είÏοδο ÏÏÏÏν ÏÎ¿Î»Ï ÏÏÏÏÏÏεÏÏν αÏÏ Ïην Îλλάδα Ïε ÏÏνδÏαÏÎ¼Ï Î¼Îµ Ïην ανοδική ÏοÏεία ÏÎ·Ï ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿Î½Î¿Î¼Î¯Î±Ï Î¸Î± βγάλει ÏιθανÏÏαÏα ÏÎ¿Î»Î»Î­Ï ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï Î±ÏÏ Ïον λεγÏμενο ΣÏÏÏο 1 ÏÎ¿Ï ÎοινοÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î Î»Î±Î¹ÏÎ¯Î¿Ï Î£ÏήÏÎ¹Î¾Î·Ï ÏÏον οÏοίο καÏεÏθÏνονÏαι και οι ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏÎµÏ ÎµÏιδοÏήÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏον οÏοίο ανήκοÏν ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï Î¼Îµ Î.Î.Π. καÏά κεÏαλήν μικÏÏÏεÏο ÏÎ¿Ï 75% ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÏÏÏÏαÏÎºÎ¿Ï Î¼Î­ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏοÏ. Îε Ïα ÏÏοιÏεία ÏÎ¿Ï 2003 αÏÏ Ïον ΣÏÏÏο 1 έÏοÏν βγει οι ÎµÎ¾Î®Ï ÏεÏιοÏέÏ: ÎÏÏική, ÎÏÏιο Îιγαίο, ΣÏεÏεά Îλλάδα, ÎενÏÏική Îακεδονία, ÎÏÏειο Îιγαίο και οÏιακά η ΠελοÏÏννηÏοÏ.\n" +
"ÎÎµÎ³Î¬Î»ÎµÏ ÏÏοκλήÏÎµÎ¹Ï ÏαÏαμένοÏν, η μείÏÏη ÏÎ·Ï Î±Î½ÎµÏÎ³Î¯Î±Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ η ÏεÏαιÏέÏÏ Î±Î½Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿Î´ÏμηÏη ÏÎ·Ï Î¿Î¹ÎºÎ¿Î½Î¿Î¼Î¯Î±Ï Î¼Î­ÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ·Ï Î¹Î´Î¹ÏÏικοÏοίηÏÎ·Ï Î´Î¹Î±ÏÏÏÏν μεγάλÏν κÏαÏικÏν εÏαιÏειÏν, η αναμÏÏÏÏÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ¿Î¹Î½ÏÎ½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î±ÏÏάλιÏηÏ, διÏÏθÏÏη ÏÎ¿Ï ÏοÏÎ¿Î»Î¿Î³Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÏÏÏήμαÏοÏ, και η ελαÏιÏÏοÏοίηÏη ÏÏν γÏαÏειοκÏαÏικÏν αδÏναμιÏν. ΠανάÏÏÏξη ÏÏολογίζεÏαι Ïε 3,9% για Ïο 2004.\n" +
"Πεθνική κενÏÏική ÏÏάÏεζα ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÏάÏοÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ η ΤÏάÏεζα ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î¿Ï (ΤÏÎ), η οÏοία ÏμÏÏ Î­Ïει ÏαÏαÏÏÏήÏει ÏÎ¹Ï ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏÎµÏ Î±ÏμοδιÏÏηÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏην ÎÏÏÏÏαÏκή ÎενÏÏική ΤÏάÏεζα (Î.Î.Τ.), μεÏά Ïην είÏÎ¿Î´Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏην ζÏνη ÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÏÏÏ Ïο 2001.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎημογÏαÏία\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ÎημογÏαÏία ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎÏθÏο βαÏικÏν αÏοÏελεÏμάÏÏν αÏογÏαÏήÏ: ÎÏογÏαÏή 2001\n" +
"ΣÏμÏÏνα με Ïην ÏελεÏÏαία αÏογÏαÏή (2001)[5] ο μÏÎ½Î¹Î¼Î¿Ï ÏληθÏÏμÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ 10.934.097 κ. Την ημέÏα ÏÎ·Ï Î±ÏογÏαÏήÏ, ÏÏη ÏÏÏα βÏέθηκαν και αÏογÏάÏηκαν (ÏÏαγμαÏικÏÏ ÏληθÏÏμÏÏ) 10.964.020 κ.\n" +
"Î ÎÎ¹ÎµÎ¸Î½Î®Ï ÎκθεÏη για ÏÎ¹Ï ÎÏηÏκεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎλεÏθεÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏνÏάÏÏει κάθε έÏÎ¿Ï Ïο Î¥ÏοÏÏγείο ÎξÏÏεÏικÏν ÏÏν ÎνÏμένÏν ΠολιÏειÏν, αναÏέÏει Ïο 2005: «ΠεÏίÏÎ¿Ï 97% ÏÏν ÏολιÏÏν αÏÏοÏÏοÏδιοÏίζονÏαι, ÏοÏλάÏιÏÏον καÏâ Ïνομα, ÏÏ ÎλληνoÏθÏδοξοι. Î¥ÏάÏÏοÏν ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï 500.000-800.000 ÏαλαιοημεÏολογίÏÎµÏ Ïε ολÏκληÏη Ïη ÏÏÏα â ÏÏεÏ-ÏÏνÏηÏηÏικοί ÎÏθÏδοξοι, οι οÏοίοι ÏÏηÏιμοÏοιοÏν Ïο ÎοÏÎ»Î¹Î±Î½Ï Î·Î¼ÎµÏολÏγιο και είναι αÏοÏιÏμένοι ÏÏÎ¹Ï ÏαÏαδοÏÎ¹Î±ÎºÎ­Ï ÎλληνοÏθÏÎ´Î¿Î¾ÎµÏ ÏÏακÏικέÏ. ΠκÏβέÏνηÏη δεν ÏηÏεί ÏÏαÏιÏÏικά ÏÏοιÏεία για ÏÎ¹Ï Î¸ÏηÏκεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï Î¿Î¼Î¬Î´ÎµÏ. ÎαÏά Ïη διάÏκεια ÏÏν αÏογÏαÏÏν ÏληθÏÏμοÏ, οι κάÏοικοι δεν εÏÏÏÏνÏαι για Ïο θÏηÏκεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏοÏÏ ÏιÏÏεÏÏ. Îι αÏÏÎ­Ï ÏÏολογίζοÏν ÏÏι η ΤοÏÏκÏÏÏνη ÎοÏÏοÏλμανική κοινÏÏηÏα αÏιθμεί 98.000 άÏομα, αλλά, άλλοι ÏÏολογίζοÏν ÏÏι ο αÏιθμÏÏ Î±ÏÏÏÏ Î±Î½Î­ÏÏεÏαι Ïε 140.000 άÏομα. Τα ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏα ÏÏιÏÏιανικά μη ÎÏθÏδοξα δÏγμαÏα ÏÏναÏαÏÏίζονÏαι καÏά κÏÏιο λÏγο αÏÏ Î³Î·Î³ÎµÎ½ÎµÎ¯Ï ÎλληνεÏ. Îι ÎάÏÏÏÏÎµÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎεÏÏβά αναÏέÏοÏν ÏÏι έÏοÏν 30.000 ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ½ÎµÏγά μέλη και 50.000 άÏομα ÏÎ¿Ï Î­ÏοÏν ÏÏοÏÏÏÏήÏει ÏÏην ÏίÏÏη. Îι Îαθολικοί ÏÏολογίζονÏαι Ïε 50.000. Îι ΠÏοÏεÏÏάνÏεÏ, ÏÏμÏεÏιλαμβανÏμενÏν ÏÏν ÎÏαγγελιÏÏÏν, είναι 30.000, και οι οÏαδοί ÏÎ·Ï ÎκκληÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎηÏÎ¿Ï Î§ÏιÏÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏν ÎγίÏν ÏÏν ΤελεÏÏαίÏν ÎμεÏÏν (ÎοÏμÏνοι) 300. Îι ΣαÏενÏολÏγοι ιÏÏÏÏίζονÏαι ÏÏι έÏοÏν 500 ενεÏγά εγγεγÏαμμένα μέλη. ΠαÏÏ Î±Î¹ÏνÏν ÏÏάÏÏοÏÏα ÎβÏαÏκή κοινÏÏηÏα αÏιθμεί ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï 5.000 ÏιÏÏοÏÏ, αÏÏ ÏοÏÏ Î¿ÏοίοÏÏ 2.000 ÏÏολογίζεÏαι ÏÏι διαμένοÏν ÏÏη ÎεÏÏαλονίκη. ΠεÏίÏÎ¿Ï 250 μέλη ÏÎ·Ï ÎºÎ¿Î¹Î½ÏÏηÏÎ±Ï ÏÏν ÎÏαÏάι είναι διαÏκοÏÏιÏμένα ÏÏην ÏÏÏα, Ïα ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏα ÏÏν οÏοίÏν δεν είναι ÏολίÏÎµÏ ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±ÏαγÏγήÏ. ΠαÏÏαία Îλληνική ÎÏηÏκεία ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏÎ´ÎµÎºÎ±Î¸Î­Î¿Ï Î­Ïει ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï 2.000 μέλη. Î¥ÏάÏÏοÏν ακÏμα μικÏÎ­Ï Î¿Î¼Î¬Î´ÎµÏ ÎγγλικανÏν, ÎαÏÏιÏÏÏν, καθÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ άλλοι ΧÏιÏÏιανοί ÏÎ¿Ï Î´ÎµÎ½ ανήκοÏν Ïε κάÏοιο ÏÏγκεκÏιμένο δÏγμα. Îεν ÏÏάÏÏει εÏίÏημη ή ανεÏίÏημη εκÏίμηÏη ÏÏ ÏÏÎ¿Ï Ïον αÏÎ¹Î¸Î¼Ï ÏÏν αθέÏν. Î ÏλειοÏηÏία ÏÏν καÏοίκÏν μη ÎµÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏÏηκοÏÏηÏÎ±Ï Î´ÎµÎ½ είναι ÎÏθÏδοξοι. ΠμεγαλÏÏεÏη αÏÏ Î±ÏÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ¹Ï Î¿Î¼Î¬Î´ÎµÏ ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ Îλβανοί[5], ÏÏμÏεÏιλαμβανÏμενÏν ÏÏν νομίμÏν και ÏαÏανÏμÏν μεÏαναÏÏÏν. Îν και οι ÏεÏιÏÏÏÏεÏοι Îλβανοί δεν ανήκοÏν Ïε κάÏοια θÏηÏκεία, ÏαÏαδοÏιακά ÏÏνδέονÏαι με Ïη ÎοÏÏοÏλμανική, Ïην ÎÏθÏδοξη, ή Ïη ΡÏμαιοκαθολική ÏίÏÏη. ÎκÏÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎµÎ½ÏÏÏÎ¹Î±Ï ÎοÏÏοÏÎ»Î¼Î±Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï Î¼ÎµÎ¹Î¿Î½ÏÏηÏÎ±Ï ÏÏη ÎÏάκη, οι ÎοÏÏοÏλμάνοι μεÏανάÏÏÎµÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î²ÏίÏκονÏαι ÏÏην ÏÏÏλοιÏη ÏÏÏα ÏÏολογίζεÏαι ÏÏι ανέÏÏονÏαι Ïε 200.000-300.000.» [6]\n" +
"Î¤Î¹Ï ÏελεÏÏÎ±Î¯ÎµÏ Î´ÎµÎºÎ±ÎµÏÎ¯ÎµÏ Î· Îλλάδα έÏει δεÏÏεί ένα μεγάλο κÏμα μεÏανάÏÏεÏÏηÏ. Î ÏÏνολικÏÏ Î±ÏιθμÏÏ ÏÏν μεÏαναÏÏÏν ÏÏολογίζεÏαι ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏο 10% ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏÎ½Î¿Î»Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏληθÏÏÎ¼Î¿Ï Î® ÏÏÎ¹Ï 950.000 ανθÏÏÏοÏÏ. ÎÏμιμοι κάÏοικοι ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏÎ±Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏεÏίÏÎ¿Ï Î¿Î¹ μιÏοί αν και οι αÏιθμοί έÏοÏν μεγάλη διακÏμανÏη λÏÎ³Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î­Î»Î»ÎµÎ¹ÏÎ·Ï ÎµÏίÏÎ·Î¼Î·Ï Î¼ÎµÏαναÏÏεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÏολιÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÎ·Ï Î±ÏÏÎ¬Î¸ÎµÎ¹Î±Ï ÏÏÎ¹Ï Î³ÎµÎ¹ÏÎ¿Î½Î¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏÏÏÎµÏ ÏÎ·Î³Î­Ï Î¼ÎµÏαναÏÏÏν. Îι μεγαλÏÏεÏÎµÏ ÏληθÏÏÎ¼Î¹Î±ÎºÎ­Ï Î¿Î¼Î¬Î´ÎµÏ ÏÏμÏÏνα με Ïην αÏογÏαÏή ÏÎ¿Ï 2001 ÏαίνεÏαι να είναι οι ÏÏοεÏÏÏμενοι αÏÏ Îλβανία, ΡοÏμανία, ÎοÏλγαÏία, ΠακιÏÏάν, ÎÏκÏανία, ΠολÏνία, ÎίγÏÏÏο.\n" +
"ΠέÏα αÏÏ ÏοÏÏ Î±Î»Î»Î¿Î´Î±ÏοÏÏ Î¼ÎµÏανάÏÏÎµÏ Î­ÏοÏν έÏθει μεÏά Ïην ÏÏÏÏη ÏÎ¿Ï Î¤ÎµÎ¯ÏοÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ αÏκεÏοί Î¿Î¼Î¿Î³ÎµÎ½ÎµÎ¯Ï Î±ÏÏ ÏεÏιοÏÎ­Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÏÏÏην Î.Σ.Σ.Î. και αÏÏ Ïα Îαλκάνια. Îι μεγαλÏÏεÏÎµÏ Î¿Î¼Î¬Î´ÎµÏ ÏαλιννοÏÏοÏνÏÏν είναι αÏÏ Ïην Îλβανία, Ïην ΡÏÏία και Ïην ÎεÏÏγία.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎνοÏÎ»ÎµÏ Î´ÏÎ½Î¬Î¼ÎµÎ¹Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ΣÏμαÏα αÏÏαλείαÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÎνοÏÎ»ÎµÏ ÎÏνάμειÏ:\n" +
"ÎλληνικÏÏ Î£ÏÏαÏÏÏ\n" +
"ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÏ Î Î¿Î»ÎµÎ¼Î¹ÎºÏ ÎαÏÏικÏ\n" +
"Îλληνική Πολεμική ÎεÏοÏοÏία\n" +
"ΣÏμαÏα αÏÏαλείαÏ:\n" +
"Îλληνική ÎÏÏÏνομία\n" +
"ΠÏÏοÏβεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Î£Ïμα\n" +
"ÎÎ¹Î¼ÎµÎ½Î¹ÎºÏ Î£Ïμα\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"Î¥ÏοÏÏεÏÏική ÏÏÏάÏεÏÏη\n" +
"ÎÏÏιο άÏθÏο: ΠθηÏεία ÏÏην Îλλάδα\n" +
"ÎέÏÏι Ïο 2004, η Îλλάδα είÏε νομοθεÏήÏει ÏÏοÏÏεÏÏική θηÏεία 12 μηνÏν, για ÏλοÏÏ ÏοÏÏ Î¬Î½Î´ÏÎµÏ Î¬Î½Ï ÏÏν 18 εÏÏν. ΩÏÏÏÏο, κινείÏαι ÏÏÎ¿Ï Ïην ανάÏÏÏξη ενÏÏ ÏλήÏÏÏ ÎµÏαγγελμαÏÎ¹ÎºÎ¿Ï ÏÏÏαÏοÏ, με ÏÏÏÏο Ïην ÏλήÏη καÏάÏγηÏη ÏÎ·Ï Î¸Î·ÏείαÏ. Το Î¥ÏοÏÏγείο ÎÎ¸Î½Î¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎμÏÎ½Î±Ï Î­Ïει αναγγείλει Ïη ÏÏαδιακή μείÏÏη ÏÏοÏÏ 6 Î¼Î®Î½ÎµÏ Ïο 2008 και ÏιθανολογείÏαι ÏÏι μÏοÏεί και να καÏαÏγηθεί ÏελείÏÏ. ΠαÏÏÏι γίνονÏαι δεκÏÎ­Ï Î±Î¹ÏήÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î³ÏναικÏν ÏÎ¿Ï Î¸Î­Î»Î¿Ïν να ÏÏηÏεÏήÏοÏν, δεν είναι ÏÏοÏÏεÏÏικÏ. ΠκίνηÏη αÏÏή δημιοÏÏγεί ανÏιÏÏήÏÎµÎ¹Ï Î±ÏÏ ÏοÏÏ ÎºÏκλοÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î±Î½ÏιÏίθενÏαι ÏÏην ÏÏοÏÏεÏÏική ÏÏÏάÏεÏÏη, γιαÏί ÎµÎ½Ï Ïο ÎÏθÏο 2 ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½Î¹ÎºÎ¿Ï Î£ÏνÏάγμαÏÎ¿Ï Î¸Î­Ïει ÏÏÏÏÏεοÏÏ ÏλοÏÏ ÏοÏÏ ÎÎ»Î»Î·Î½ÎµÏ ÏολίÏÎµÏ Î½Î± ÏÏεÏαÏÏιÏÏοÏν Ïην Îλλάδα, ο ÏÏÏÏÎ¿Ï Î­Î³ÎºÎµÎ¹Ïαι ολοκληÏÏÏικά ÏÏον ανδÏÎ¹ÎºÏ ÏληθÏÏμÏ.\n" +
"Îι κληÏÏÏοί δεν λαμβάνοÏν ιαÏÏική αÏÏάλιÏη καÏά Ïη διάÏκεια ÏÎ·Ï Î¸Î·ÏÎµÎ¯Î±Ï ÏοÏÏ, οÏÏε ο ÏÏÏÎ½Î¿Ï ÏÎ·Ï Î¸Î·ÏÎµÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÏνÏÏολογίζεÏαι ÏÏα ÏÏÏνια εÏγαÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏοÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï Î¸ÎµÎ¼ÎµÎ»Î¹ÏνοÏν Ïο ÏÏνÏαξιοδοÏÎ¹ÎºÏ Î´Î¹ÎºÎ±Î¯Ïμα. ÎαμβάνοÏν, ÏμÏÏ, ÏλήÏη ιαÏÏική και νοÏοκομειακή ÏεÏίθαλÏη αÏÏ Ïα καÏά ÏÏÏοÏÏ ÏÏÏαÏιÏÏικά νοÏοκομεία, εÏ' ÏÏον αÏÏά ÏÏάÏÏοÏν ÏÏον ÏÏÏο ÏÎ¿Ï ÏÏηÏεÏοÏν, αλλιÏÏ Î±Î½Î±Î³ÎºÎ¬Î¶Î¿Î½Ïαι να μεÏαÏεÏθοÏν ÏÏην Îθήνα. ΠμιÏθÏÏ ÏÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ»Î·ÏÏÏÎ¿Ï ÎµÎ¯Î½Î±Î¹ ÏÏμβολικÏÏ (9 εÏÏÏ Ïο μήνα για ÏοÏÏ Î¿ÏλίÏεÏ, ÏμηνίÏεÏ, κληÏÏÏοÏÏ, 11 εÏÏÏ Î³Î¹Î± ÏοÏÏ ÏÏÏαÏεÏÏιμοÏÏ Î´ÎµÎºÎ±Î½ÎµÎ¯Ï, ÏÏοÏμηνίεÏ, ÏÏοκελεÏÏÏÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏοÏÏ ÏÏÏαÏεÏÏιμοÏÏ Î»Î¿ÏίεÏ, ÏμηνίεÏ, κελεÏÏÏÎ­Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ 600 εÏÏÏ Î³Î¹Î± ÏοÏÏ Î´ÏκιμοÏÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏν ÏÏιÏν ÏÏμάÏÏν). Îι δÏκιμοι ÏÏηÏεÏοÏν 5 Î¼Î®Î½ÎµÏ ÏαÏαÏÎ¬Î½Ï Î±ÏÏ ÏοÏÏ ÏÏÏλοιÏοÏÏ ÏÏναδέλÏοÏÏ ÏοÏÏ. ΠμιÏθÏÏ Î´ÎµÎ½ αÏκεί για να καλÏÏει Ïα έξοδα ÏÏν κληÏÏÏÏν, ιδιαίÏεÏα ÏÏαν Î­Î½Î±Ï ÎºÎ»Î·ÏÏÏÏÏ ÏÏηÏεÏεί μακÏιά αÏÏ Ïον ÏÏÏο Î´Î¹Î±Î¼Î¿Î½Î®Ï ÏοÏ, με αÏοÏέλεÏμα ÏÏακÏικά οι κληÏÏÏοί να ζοÏνε αÏÏ Ïην οικονομική ÏÏήÏιξη ÏÏν γονέÏν ÏοÏÏ ÎºÎ±Ïά Ïην διάÏκεια ÏÎ·Ï Î¸Î·ÏÎµÎ¯Î±Ï ÏοÏÏ.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ΠολιÏιÏμÏÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï Î´Î¹Î¬ÏημÏν ÎλλήνÏν\n" +
"Îλληνική μÏθολογία\n" +
"ÎÏÏαία ελληνική λογοÏεÏνία\n" +
"Îλληνική ÎÏÏιÏεκÏονική\n" +
"Îλληνική κοÏζίνα\n" +
"Îλληνική ÎλÏÏÏα\n" +
"Îλληνική ÎοÏÏική\n" +
"Îλληνικά ÎοÏÏεία\n" +
"ÎέÏα ÎνημέÏÏÏηÏ\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎÏγίεÏ\n" +
"ÎμεÏομηνία	ÎνομαÏία	ΣÏÏλια\n" +
"1 ÎανοÏαÏίοÏ	ΠÏÏÏοÏÏονιά	 \n" +
"6 ÎανοÏαÏίοÏ	ÎεοÏάνεια	 \n" +
"κινηÏή	ÎαθαÏά ÎεÏÏέÏα	έναÏξη ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎµÎ³Î¬Î»Î·Ï Î¤ÎµÏÏαÏακοÏÏήÏ\n" +
"25η ÎαÏÏίοÏ	ÎÏαγγελιÏμÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎεοÏÏÎºÎ¿Ï ÎºÎ±Î¹ Îθνική ÎοÏÏή	Îθνική ÎοÏÏή για Ïην ÎÏανάÏÏαÏη ÏÎ¿Ï 1821\n" +
"κινηÏή	Îεγάλη ΠαÏαÏκεÏή	 \n" +
"κινηÏή	ΠάÏÏα	ÎνάÏÏαÏη ÏÎ¿Ï Î§ÏιÏÏοÏ\n" +
"κινηÏή	ÎεÏÏέÏα ÎιακαινηÏÎ¯Î¼Î¿Ï (ÎεÏÏέÏα ÏÎ¿Ï Î Î¬ÏÏα)	ÎεÏÏέÏα μεÏά Ïην ÎνάÏÏαÏη\n" +
"1 ÎαÎοÏ	ΠÏÏÏομαγιά	 \n" +
"κινηÏή	ÎÎ³Î¯Î¿Ï Î Î½ÎµÏμαÏοÏ	 \n" +
"15 ÎÏγοÏÏÏοÏ	ÎοίμηÏη ÏÎ·Ï ÎεοÏÏκοÏ	 \n" +
"28η ÎκÏÏβÏίοÏ	ÎÏέÏÎµÎ¹Î¿Ï ÏÎ¿Ï ÎÏι	Îθνική ÎοÏÏή (1940)\n" +
"25 ÎεκεμβÏίοÏ	ΧÏιÏÏοÏγεννα	 \n" +
"26 ÎεκεμβÏίοÏ	ΣÏÎ½Î±Î¾Î¹Ï ÎεοÏÏκοÏ	 \n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ΣημειÏÏειÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"â www.destatis.de εκÏίμηÏη ÏληθÏÏÎ¼Î¿Ï ÏÏÏαÏ, 2006\n" +
"â ΣÏνÏαγμα ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ, άÏθÏο 30\n" +
"â 3,0 3,1 ΣÏνÏαγμα ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ, άÏθÏο 82\n" +
"â 4,0 4,1 4,2 Πηγάζει ÏÏη ÎοÏλγαÏία\n" +
"â 5,0 5,1 αÏογÏαÏή 2001\n" +
"â Πηγή: ÎÎ¹ÎµÎ¸Î½Î®Ï ÎκθεÏη ÎÏηÏκεÏÏÎ¹ÎºÎ®Ï ÎλεÏθεÏÎ¯Î±Ï ÏÎ¿Ï 2005 ÏÏην ελληνική και ÏÏην αγγλική, Î¥ÏοÏÏγείο ÎξÏÏεÏικÏν ÏÏν Î.Π.Î.\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎείÏε εÏίÏηÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"Σημαία ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï Î³Î»ÏÏÏÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"ΤÏάÏεζα ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδοÏ\n" +
"ÎνομαÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï Ïε διάÏοÏÎµÏ Î³Î»ÏÏÏεÏ\n" +
"ÎÏÎ»Î±Ï ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ: ÏÏλλογή διαÏÏÏÏν ÏαÏÏÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï ÏÏα Îοινά (Commons).\n" +
"ÎαÏÎ¬Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï Î½Î¿ÏοκομείÏν ÏÎ·Ï ÎλλάδαÏ\n" +
"[ÎÏεξεÏγαÏία]\n" +
"ÎξÏÏεÏÎ¹ÎºÎ­Ï ÏÏνδέÏειÏ\n" +
"\n" +
"ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγÏÏ ÏÎ·Ï ÎÎ»Î»Î¬Î´Î±Ï (ÎÏαÏείο ΠÏÏθÏÏοÏÏγοÏ)\n" +
"ÎοÏλή ÏÏν ÎλλήνÏν\n" +
"ΠαÏάθÏÏο ÏÏην Îλλάδα (ÏÏήÏÎ¹Î¼ÎµÏ ÏληÏοÏοÏÎ¯ÎµÏ ÎºÎ±Î¹ ÏÏνδεÏμοι για Ïην Îλλάδα)\n" +
"ΠαÏάθÏÏο ÏÏην Îλλάδα (ÏαλαιÏÏεÏη «έκδοÏη»)\n" +
"ÎλληνικÏÏ ÎÏγανιÏμÏÏ Î¤Î¿ÏÏιÏμοÏ\n" +
"Î¥ÏοÏÏγείο ÎξÏÏεÏικÏν\n";


var hebrew =
"××ס××ר×× ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"×ת×× ××ק×פ×××, ××נצ×ק××פ××× ×××פש×ת\n" +
"קפ××¦× ××: × ××××, ×פש\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ×× ×¢×סק ××××ס××ר×× ×©× ××ש×ת ×תר××ת×ת ××××××רפ×ת ××××¨× ×ס××. ×× ×ת×××× ×ª× ××××ס××ר×× ×©× ×××× × ××××רת ×××× ××©× \"ס××\", ר×× ××ס××ר×× ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡××.\n" +
"\n" +
"××¢×¨× ×× ××פ××¢ ×××¤× ×××¨× ×ס××ת×\n" +
"\n" +
"××× ×©×ª×××× ×ר××ת ×ת ××ת×× ××¢×¨× ×× ×צ××¨× ×ª×§×× ×, תצ×ר×× ××תק×× ×××¤× ×××¨× ×ס×××ª× ×××ש×××. ×× ××× ×× ××××¢×× ×××¦× ×עש×ת ××ת, ×××¦× ××× ×ק××ת ×¢×ר×\n" +
"\n" +
"ס×× ×× × ×תר××ת ××פ×ת×ת ××רצ××¤× ×עת××§× ×××תר ××¢×××, ת××¢×××× ×ת×××× ×©× ×תר××ת × ×צ××× ××ר ×××¤× × 3,500 שנ×× ××ס×× ×× ×¢×¦×× × ×ק××× ××ספר 5,000 ××ספר שנ×ת ק×××× ×©× ×ª×¨××ת×. ש×ש××ת ×ש×××× ×ס×× ×¤×ת×× ××××¨× ×שנ×× ×©×××ת ××ר×קר××× ×©×××× ×ת ש××¢× ××§× ×ס×× ×× ×תר×× ×ש××¢××ª× ×¢× ××¢××× ×ש××××× ×©××× ×ס××××. פ×ת×× ×××××××××× ××××× ×, ××××ססת ×¢× ××©× ×ª× ×פ×××ס×פ×ת ×©× ×§×נפ×צ××ס (×××× ×-1 ×פנ×\"ס), ××× ×¢× ×¤×ת×× ×ער×ת ××ª× ×××× × ××× (×××× ×-2 ×פנ×\"ס) ××××§× ×¢×× ××תר ×ת ×תר××ת ×ס×× ×ת. ××××× × ×¤×××××ת, ס×× × ×¢× ×תנ××¢× ×ת××ת ××× ××××× ×פ×ר×× ××עת×× ×× × ×××©× ×¢× ××× ××××ת ×ר×× ×שר ×ר×××ª× ×ת×××× ×ת×× ×ª×¨×××ª× ××פ×× ×××ק ×××ª× × ×¤×¨× ××× ×. ×שפע×ת תר××ת××ת ×פ××××××ת ××× ×©××××¢× ××× ×§×¦××ת ×ס×× ××× ×× ××× ××××¨× ×× ×××××¥ ××××× × ××¦×¨× ××× ×ת ××××ª× ×©× ×תר××ת ×××¢× ×ס×× × ××¤× ×©×× ×××ר×× ×× × ××××.\n" +
"××ס××ר×× ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ×תק××¤× ×ק××××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ש××שת ×××××× ×××שת ×ק×סר××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ש××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ש×× ×\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ×'×××\n" +
"    תק×פת ××××× ××סת××\n" +
"    תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ס×× ×ק×סר×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת צ'××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ××× ××ער××ת\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ש××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ××× ×××ר××ת\n" +
"    ש××שת ××××××ת\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ×'××\n" +
"    ×ש×ש×ת ×צפ×× ×ת ×××ר×××ת\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ס××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ××× ×\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ס×× ×\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ××'××\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת ××× ×\n" +
"    ש×ש×ת צ'×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ×תפ×רר×ת ×ק×סר×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    ××××ת ×××פ××× ×ר×ש×× ×\n" +
"    ××¨× ×××פ×× ×\n" +
"    ××××ת ×××פ××× ×שנ×××\n" +
"    ××××ת ס××-צרפת\n" +
"    ××××ת ס××-××¤× ×ר×ש×× ×\n" +
"    רפ×ר×ת ××× ×××××\n" +
"    ××¨× ×××קסר××\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ס×× ××××רנ×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    ××פ×ת ש×× ×××\n" +
"    ×ק××ª× ×©× ××פ××× ×ק××× ×ס××ת ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"    ×××¦×¢× ××ר××\n" +
"    תקר×ת ש×××\n" +
"    ××××ת ס××-××¤× ×שנ×××\n" +
"    ××××ת ×××ר××× ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ×עת ×××ש×\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×ק×ת ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"    ×ער×ת ××× ×פר×××\n" +
"    ×××× ×ק ××××× ×§××××\n" +
"    ×פ×צ×× ×ס×× ×-ס××××××\n" +
"    ××××ת ××××-ס××\n" +
"    ××פ×ת ×תר××ת ×ס××\n" +
"    תקר×ת ×××× ×× ××\n" +
"\n" +
"ר×× ××\n" +
"\n" +
"    * ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"    * ××× ××× ×× ×©× ×××ס××ר×× ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"\n" +
"פ×ר×× ×¡××\n" +
"ק×××ר×× ×¨×ש×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"ת××× ×¢× ××× ××\n" +
"[×סתר]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 1 פר×-××ס××ר××\n" +
"          o 1.1 ש××שת ×××××× ×××שת ×ק×סר××\n" +
"    * 2 ××ס××ר×× ×§××××\n" +
"          o 2.1 ש×ש×ת שְ××Ö¸×\n" +
"          o 2.2 ש×ש×ת שָ××× Ö°×\n" +
"          o 2.3 ש×ש×ת ×'×Ö¹××Ö¼\n" +
"          o 2.4 תק×פת ××××× ××סת××\n" +
"          o 2.5 תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת\n" +
"    * 3 ש×ש×ת צ'××: ××××פר×× ×ס×× ×ת ×ר×ש×× ×\n" +
"    * 4 ש×ש×ת ×××: תק××¤× ×©× ×©×ש××\n" +
"    * 5 ×'××, שש ×¢×©×¨× ××××××ת ××ש×ש××ת ××ר×××ת ××צפ×× ×ת: ×תק××¤× ××פ×× ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"    * 6 ש×ש×ת ××× ×: ×××¨× ×ש××ש××\n" +
"    * 7 ש×ש×ת ס×× × ×ש×× ×ת×× ×צפ×× ××ת, ×××× ××'××\n" +
"    * 8 ×××× ×××××\n" +
"    * 9 ת××××ª× ×××ש ×©× ×תר××ת ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"    * 10 תק×פת ××× ×: ××תפת××ת ××××××\n" +
"    * 11 ש×ש×ת צ'×× ×\n" +
"    * 12 ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"    * 13 ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"    * 14 ר×× ××\n" +
"    * 15 ×קר××× × ×ספת\n" +
"    * 16 ק×ש×ר×× ××צ×× ×××\n" +
"    * 17 ×ער×ת ש×××××\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] פר×-××ס××ר××\n" +
"\n" +
"××¢××××ת ××ר××××××××ת ×ק××××ת ×××תר ×× ××××ת ×× ×ש×ת ×ס×× ×©× ×××× × ×× ×©× ×××× ×רק××ס. ××קר×× ××ש×× ××××× ×× ×¢×××× ×××× ×©× ×צ×× ××תר ש×××צ'×× ××××× × ×ת××ר××× ××××× × ×¡×ר×××רפ×ת ×××¤× × 1.36 ×××××× × ×©× ××. ××תר ××ר××××××× ×©Ö´××××Ö¹××Ö¼××Ö¼ ש××××× ×©×× ×¡× × ×צ××ת ××¢××××ת ×ר×ש×× ×ת ××¢××× ×ש×××ש ××ש ×¢× ××× ××××× ×רק××ס, ××ת××ר××ת ×××¤× × 1.27 ×××××× × ×©× ××. ×¢× ××ת ת×ש××× ×× ×××××× ×©× ××××ר ××× × ×¦×צ×× ×××ª× ×××× ×רק××ס, ××× ×¦×צ×× ×××× ×¡×פ××נס ש××××¢ ××××ר ××××ר ×פר××§× ×¨×§ ××¤× × 65,000 שנ××.\n" +
"\n" +
"×¢××××ת ××ק×××ת ××ק×××ת ס×× ×ת ××פ×ס×ת â ×××××× ×××¨× ××ר××ת â ×ת××ר××ת ×שנת 6,000 ×פנ×\"ס. ××××× ×תר××××ת ק××××ת ××× ××¢×××, ××××× ××ק×××ת ×××××× ×××ר ××××××ס×××, ××××× ×©×ת×סס×ת ×¢× ××××××× ×ק××××× ×××××× ××××ת ש×××ר ××××× ×××××¨×ª× ×××× ××××©× ××תר, ××× ××××× ×××ר×× ×××××× ××××××ס×××, ××תפת×××ª× ×תר××ת×ת ××ר×××× ××רת×.\n" +
"\n" +
"×ש××× ×תק××¤× ×× ×××××××ת ××× ×¢×ק ×× ×ר ×צ××× ×ס×× ××¤×ª× ×ת ××¢××× ××ר×× ×ª×¨××ת×, ××שר ר×ש×× × ××פר×× ××××ר ××פ××¢× ×©×. ×ר××ת ××¢××××ת ××ר×× ×ש×× ×× × ×צ××ת ××××ר ××¢×ר ש×-×× ×ס××.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש××שת ×××××× ×××שת ×ק×סר××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש××שת ×××××× ×××שת ×ק×סר××\n" +
"\n" +
"×¡×¤×¨× ×××ס××ר×× ×ק×××××, רש×××ת ×××ס××ר×××, שנ×ת×× ×¢× ××× ×××ס××ר××רף ×ס×× × ×¡Ö°×-×Ö¸× ×¦Ö°'××Öµ× ×××× ×שנ××× ×פנ×\"ס, ×ספר ת××××ת ××××ר×, שנ×ת×× ×××× ×ר×××¢×ת ×פנ×\"ס ×ת×ר××× ×ת ת×××ת ×××ס××ר×× ×ס×× ×ת ×תק×פת ש××שת ×××××× ×××שת ×ק×סר×× - 2800 ×פנ×\"ס. ×תק××¤× ×× ××פ××× ×× ××ת××××××× ××××ק××. ×××××× ××ק×סר×× ×ª××× ×ת ××ס×××ת ××× ×ת××ר×× ×ש××××× × ××× ×× ×××¢×× ××סר ×××פת. ××× ×××, ×ק×סר ×צ××× × ××©× ×××× ×× × ××××.\n" +
"\n" +
"ס×-×× ×¦'××× ×××ª× ×× ×ª×××ת ××ס×ס ×ער×ת ××ש×ת×ת × ×¢×©× ×××× ×©×ש×ת ש××, ×ס×× ×× ××ער×ת ××× ×¦× ×¢× ××× ×©×ש××ת ש×× × ××'×××. ×תק×פת ש××שת ×ש×ש××ת ××××, ×××× ×¡×× ×פצ××¢ ×¢× ×©×ר ×××ס××ר××. ×××× ×××××, ×¢× ×××× ×עשר××, ×ת××ר×ת ת××××ת ס×× ××¤× ×ש×ש××ת ש×ש×× ××.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ××ס××ר×× ×§××××\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת שְ××Ö¸×\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ש××\n" +
"\n" +
"ש×ש×ת שְ××Ö¸× (ס×× ×ת: å¤, פ×× ×××: Xià), ××× ×ש×ש×ת ×ר×ש×× × ×ת××××ת ס××. ש×ש×ת ×× ×תק×××× ××¤× × ××צ×ת ×××ª× ×ס××, ×× ×©××¢××××ת ×ק×××× ×סת×××ת ×¢× ×ס×××× ××××ר×× ××תר ××¢× ×ר××××××××. סְ×-×Ö¸× ×¦Ö°'××Öµ× ×ספר ת××××ת ×××××¨× ×ת×ר××× ×ת ××× ×ש×ש×ת ××××¤× × 4,200 שנ×, ×××× ××× ××××× × ×××ת ×ת ×××ר××. 17 ××××× ×-14 ××ר×ת ×× ×ª× ×ש×ש×ת, ש×ת×××× ××××× ×©× ××Ö¼'â ××××× ××סת×××× ××××× ×©× ×Ö°'×Öµ× ××ש שְ××Ö¸×, ×× ×¢×-×¤× ×¡Ö°×-×Ö¸× ×¦Ö°'××Öµ× ××ק×ר×ת ××ר×× ×תק×פת ש×ש×ת צ'××.\n" +
"\n" +
"ש×ש××ת ש×× × ××'××× ×תק×××× ××ק××× ×ש×ש×ת ש×× ××ר ×ת×××ת×, ×× ××× ×פ×פ×ת ××. ×××¨× ×××× ×©× ×ש×ש×ת ×× ×ר×ר, ×× 431 ×× 471 שנ×× ×× ×©×ª× ××××פ×ת ×ס××ר×ת ×××תר.\n" +
"\n" +
"×ר×××××××× ×¨××× ××××× ×ת ש×ש×ת שְ××Ö¸× ×¢× ×תר ×ָר×Ö´×××Ö¹××Ö¼ ש××ר×× ×××× ×× ××[1]. ××תר ×× × ×ª××× ××ר ××ת×× ××ר×× ×× ×שנת 2000 ×פנ×\"ס ×ער×. × ××¢× ×× ×× ×¡×××× ×× ×¢×-××× ×רס ×ק×× ×××ת ×תק××¤× ×× ×× ×××××× ×§××× ×©× ×××ª× ×ס×× ×[2]. ××××¢×ר ×¢××××ת ×ת×××ת ×××ª× ××××ר ×עצ××ת ×× ×××ש ×©× ×©×ש×ת ש×× × ××××× ××ר×× ×× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×'×××, × ×תר ×××× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ש×× ××× ×ערפ×.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת שָ××× Ö°×\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ש×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"×ר×ש×××× ××ת×××× ×עת×ק×× ×××תר ×ס×× × ×ר×× ×צ××¨× ×××ת עת×××ת ×¢× ×¢×¦××ת ×× ×§×× ×××ת. ×ת××× ×××, ××××× ×× ×¢×¦××ת × ×××ש, ×ת××ר××× ×××× ×-13 ×פנ×\"ס ×ער×, תק×פת ש×ש×ת שָ××× Ö°× (ס×× ×ת: å, פ×× ×××: ShÄng). ××צ××× ×ר×××××××××, ×××¢×××× ×¢× ×§×××× ×©× ×ש×ש×ת ×שנ×× 1600-1046 ×פנ×\"ס ×ק×ר××, ××××ק×× ××©×ª× ×§××צ×ת. ×ק×××¦× ×××ק××ת, ×¢× ×-1300 ×ק×ר××, ××××¢× ××תר×× ×©×× ×× ××××× ×× ××. ×ק×××¦× ×××××רת, ×תק×פת ×Ö´×× (æ®·), ××ר××ת ××ס××¤× ×¨××× ×©× ×¢×¦××ת × ×××ש, ×× ×× ××××× ×× ××. ×ָנְ×Ö¸×× Ö°× ×©××××× ×× ×× ××××ª× ××××¨× ×תש××¢×ת ××××ר×× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ש×× ×. ×ש×ש×ת ××× 31 ×××××, ×××× ××××ª× ××ר××× ×©×ש×ש××ת ס××.\n" +
"\n" +
"×¢× ×¤× ×¨×©×××ת ×××ס××ר××× ××¢×××¨× ×©×ש×ת ש×× × ×ת ×××¨×ª× ×©×© פע×××, ×ש×××¢×ר ×ש××©× ××××ר×× ××¢×ר ×Ö´×× ×-1350 ×פנ×\"ס ס××× ×ת ת×××ת ת×ר ×××× ×©× ×ש×ש×ת. ×××ס××ר×× ×ת×××ת ×©× ×¡×× ×ת×רת ××ר×-××× ×§××× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ××ת ×××¨× ×שנ×××, ×× ×××¦× ××ש××¨× ××××ª× ×¢×ª ××× ××ר×× ××תר. ××קר×× ×××¢× ×× ×× ××ת×× ×ש×ש××ת ש×× ×ש×× × ×תק×××× ××ק×××, ××©× ×©×©×ש×ת ×'××× (שֶ×××¨×©× ×ת ש×ש×ת ש×× ×), ×תק×××× ××£ ××× ×××× ×©×ש×ת ש×× ×. ×¢××××ת ×ת×××ת ××תר ×× ××× × ××שש×× ××× × ×ת ק×××× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ש×× ×, ×× ××קר×× ×ער×××× ××× × × ×××× ××××ת ××ש×××× ×× × ×××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ×¢× ×©×ש×ת ש×× × ×××ק×. ×× ××ש×, ××צ××× ×ר××××××××× ××××ª× ×¢×ª ××תר סָ×נְשִ××× Ö°×Ö°×Ö°××Öµ× ×צ×××¢×× ×¢× ×××¨× ×תק××ת, ×ש×× × ×תר×××ª× ××× ×©× ×ª×××ª× ×Ö°Ö¼×ָנְ×Ö¸×× Ö°×. ××× ×¢××××ת ××ר××¢×ת ×××××¢ ×ת××× ×©××××ª× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ש×× ×. ××× ×× ××ק×××ת ××× ×× ×©×ש×ת ש×× × ×©×××ס××ר×× ×רש××ת ××× ×©××× ××¢×ר ×× ××× ×, ת×× ×©××× ×ק×××ת ×§×©×¨× ×ס×ר ×¢× ××ש×××× ×©×× ×× ×ס×××ת×, ש××× ×©×× ×× ×× ××× ××××× × ×ª×¨××ת×ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת ×'×Ö¹××Ö¼\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ×'×××\n" +
"\n" +
"ש×ש×ת ×'×Ö¹××Ö¼ (ס×× ×ת: å¨, פ×× ×××: ZhÅu), ××××ª× ×ש×ש×ת שש××× ×ת ×××× ××ר×× ×××תר ×ס××, ×-1122 ×פנ×\"ס ××¢× 256 ×פנ×\"ס - 866 שנ×. ×ש×ש×ת ×ת×××× ××ת×××ת ×× ×ר ×צ××× ××תפש×× ×× ×ª×× ×××××ת×× ×©× ×ש×× ×. ×ש×ש×ת ×ת×××× ×ת ש××××ª× ×פ××××××××. ××'××× ××× ×ער××ת ×ש×× ×, ×ש×××× ××× ×××× × ×פ××× ×©× ×©×× × ×\"××× ××ער××\". ש××× ×'××× ×××× ××Ö¼, ××¢×רת ×××× ××××ס ×©× ×'×××, ×צ×××× ×××× ××¢ ×ת ××ר×× ×§××¡×¨× ×©×× × ××§×¨× ×©×§×× ×ת ××©× ××§×¨× ×©× ××××. ××× ×× ×××× ×©× ×'××× ××××ª× ××××, ש×××¢ ×ת ×××©× ×× ×× ×ש×××, רע××× ×פ×× ×ש××× ×× ×××××××× ×× ×××× ×קעסר ×××, ××ר×× ×××××¢ ×ת ×× ××× ×צ×××ª× ×©× ×ק×סר ×× ×××× ××××ת×, ×× ×©××¨× × ×ª×¤×¡ ××××××××, ×× ×¢×× ××× ××צ×××. ×ק×סר ××¢××ר ×ת ×××¨×ª× ×× ×¢×ר ××¢×¨× ××××ר, ס××× ××ק×× ××××× × ×××× ×©×××, ××××ת ×× ×ר ×צ×××, ×××× ×©××××ª× ××ª×¤×¨×¡× ×× ×× ×¢×ר ××ש××ת × ×ר ×××× ××ס×. ×× ××××ª× ×××××¨× ×ר×ש×× × ××××× ××× ×צפ×× ×¡×× ××ר×××.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] תק×פת ××××× ××סת××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â תק×פת ××××× ××סת××\n" +
"\n" +
"תק×פת ××××× ××סת×× (×ס×× ×ת: æ¥ç§æ代) ××× ××× ××× ×©× ×ª×§××¤× ××× ×שנ×× 722 ×פנ×\"ס × 481 ×פנ×\"ס. ש×× ×©× ×תק××¤× ×ק×× ××©× ×ספר רש×××ת ××××× ××סת××, ת××¢×× ××ס×××¨× ×©× ×××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ×שר × ××ª× ×××× ×§×נפ×צ××ס.\n" +
"\n" +
"××××× ×תק××¤× × ×¢×¨×× ×××××ת ר××ת ××× ××××× ×ת ש×ר×××× ××××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ×ת ס×× ×× ×©×××× ×××××ר ×©× ××× ×ש×××× × ×ס×× ×עת×ק×. ×עק××ת ××××××ת ××××× ×©××××× ×¨××× ××ס××, ×ש××ת ××צ××× ×ס×× ×תפ××¨×¨× ××עש×. ×¢× ×תפש×××ª× ×©× ××צ×××× ×ר××× ××רץ נפ××¦× ×××ª× ×× ×××עת ×קר×× ××ת×× ×שר ××××ª× × ×××ª× ××××¢× ×××¢××ת ×©× ××צ×××× ×¢× ××××ª× ×ª×§×פ×. ×תפש××ת ×קר××× ×××ת××× ×¢×××× ×ת ××פש ×××ש×× ×××תפת××ת ×××× ×××××ת. ×××ר תק×פת ××××× ××סת×× ×××× ×ס×× ×ª×§×פת ××××ת ××××× ×ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת\n" +
"\n" +
"תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת (ס×× ×ת: æ°å, פ×× ×××: Zhàn Guó) ×××× ×××× ××××ש×ת ×פנ×\"ס ××סת×××× ×שנת 221 ×פנ×\"ס ××××××× ×©× ×¡×× ×¢× ××× ×©×ש×ת צ'××. רש××ת, ×תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת, ××× ×× ×תק××¤× ×©×§××× ××, תק×פת ××××× ××סת××, ××××ª× ×¡×× ×ª×ת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×'×Ö¹××Ö¼ ×××ר××ת, ×× ×©×××× ×× ××××ª× ×¨×§ ×××××, ××ש×ש×ת ×× ××××ª× ××©×¤×¢× ××ש×ת, ××××¢×©× ×××× ××תק××× 35 ×©× × ××¤× × ×¡×××× ×רש×× ×©× ×תק×פ×. ×ת ש×× ×§×××× ×תק××¤× ×\"רש×××ת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת\", ת××¢×× ××ס×××¨× ×©× ×תק×פ×, שנ××ª× ×תק×פת ש×ש×ת ×××.\n" +
"\n" +
"תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת, ש×× ××× ×ª×§×פת ××××× ××סת××, ××××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ×× ×©×¨× ×¦×× ××ר×ס××קר××× ×ק××××× ×¡×פ×× ××××××ת××× ×פר××, ער×× ××××× ×ת ××¢×ר×ת ס××××ת ××ש×××× ×¢×××× ×ת ש×××× ×. ×××× ×ש××ש×ת ×פנ×\"ס ×××× ××¦× ×× ××צ×רת ש××¢ ×××× ×ת ×¢×קר××ת ×ס××: ×××× ×ת צִ'× (é½), צ'×Ö¼ (æ¥), ×Öµ× (ç), ×Ö·×× (é), ×Ö¸'×× (è¶), ××Ö¶× (é­) ×צִ'×× (秦). ס××× × ×סף ×ש×× ×× ×××¢××× ×©× ××נר××× ××× ×©×× ×× ×ª××¨× ×רש×× ×××× × (å¬ - ××ק×××× ×ס×× ×ת ××××ס), ××פ×פ×× ×××××× ×××× ×©× ×'×××, ××××× × (ç) - ×××××, ×ש×××× ×××¢××× ×××× ×©× ×'×××.\n" +
"\n" +
"תק×פת ××××× ×ת ××××××ת ××× ×× ×ª××××ª× ×©× ×ש×××ש ××ר×× ××ק×× ××¨× ×ס×× ××ת×ת ×¢×קר×ת ××× ×ª×××× ××××× ×××ר×××× ××צ×××××. ××××× ×ª×§××¤× ×× ×××× ×××× ×ת ×××××ת, ש××× × ×¢× ××××××ת ××¤× × ×¤×××©× ×©× ×©×××× ×ר×ר××× ××צפ×× ××××ת, ש×××× ×ת ××ס×× ××××× ×ס×× ×ת ×××××רת ××תר. ××פ××× ×ª×¨×××ª× × ×סף ×©× ×תק××¤× ××× ×פ×××ª× ×©× ×¤×××ס×פ××ת ש×× ×ת ×××× ×§×נפ×צ×××, ×××××××, ×××××××, ××××××× ×××¢×× ×©× ×ת×ת ××××× ×ת ×ש×× ×ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"×ת×× ×תק×פ×, ×××ר ש××××ת צ'×× ×צ×××× ××××ס ×××××ש ×ת ש×ר ××××××ת, ××¤× ×××× ×¦'×× ×ק×סר ×ר×ש×× ×©× ×¡×× ××××××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת צ'××: ××××פר×× ×ס×× ×ת ×ר×ש×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת צ'××\n" +
"\n" +
"ס×× ××××× ×ר×ש×× × ×שנת 212 ×פנ×\"ס ×××× ×¦Ö´'×× ×©Ö°××-×Ö°×Ö¸×× ×, ××××¡× ×©×ש×ת צ'××. ק××× ×××××× ×ª×§×פת ××××ת ××××× ×ת ×תק×פת ××××× ××סת××, ש×ת×פ××× × ×©×ª××× ××ספר ×××××ת ש×תק×××× ××ק××× ××××× ×× ×××. ×שנת 212 ×פנ×\"ס ×¢×× ×××× ×©× ×¦'×× ××שת×× ×¡×פ×ת ×¢× ×× ××××××ת ×ס×× ×עת××§× ××ש×× ×§×¥ ××××××ת ×פנ××××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"××ר×ת ש××××פר×× ××××××ת ×©× ×ק×סר צ'×× ×תק×××× ×¨×§ 12 שנ××, ×צ××× ×ק×סר ×××× ×××¢× ×× ×××¡× ×ת ר×× ×©××× ×©× ××××× × ××¤× ×©×× × ×××ר×× ×××ª× ×××× ×××ש××× ×× ×ש×ר ר××××× ××××סס ×¢× ××××××× ×שר ××ש×× ××× ×ש××× ××× ×, ש××× ×©× ×××× ×. ש×ש×ת צ'×× ×פ×רס×ת ×× ××©× ×ª×××ת ×× ×××ª× ×©× ××××× ×ס×× ×ת ×××××× (××××× ×××××× ×תק×פת ש×ש×ת ××× ×). ×× ×× ×©× ×ק×סר ×× ××× ××צ×××× ×××××, ××¢× ×××ª× ×©× ×ק×סר ת×× ×ª×§×פת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת×.\n" +
"\n" +
"×ק×ר ××××× ×¡×× ××©×¤× ××¢×ר×ת ××× ××©×¤× ××× ×××ת (China), ××××¢ ××× ×נר×× ×××××× ×¦'×× (秦), ש×× ×©× ×ש×ש×ת ×ר×ש×× ×.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת ×××: תק××¤× ×©× ×©×ש××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ×××\n" +
"\n" +
"ש×ש×ת ××× ××פ××¢× ×ס×× ×שנת 202 ×פנ×\"ס. ×תק×פת ש×××× × ×פ×× ×ק×נפ×צ××× ××× ××ת ××××× × ××פ×××ס×פ×× ××× ×× ×××ª× ××שר ××ש××× ××× ××ת ×ת ××ש×ר ×ס×× × ×¢× ×ס××£ ×תק××¤× ×ק×סר×ת ×ת×××ת ×××× ×-20. ת×ת ש×××× ×××× ×¢×©×ª× ×תר××ת ×ס×× ×ת ×תק×××ת ××××¨× ×ת×××× ×××ס××ר×××פ××, ××××× ×ת ×××××¢. ×ק×סר ×× ×××ק ××ר××× ×ת ×××××× ×××××¤× ×ת ×\"ש×××Ö¹× ×-× ×Ö¼\" (ש×××× ×©×עת×× ×××××× ×¢× ×××× ××) ×× ×ª×× ××× ××××× ×©× ×××× ×, ת×× ×©××× ××¡×¤× ××××××ª× ×ת ×ש×××× ××× ×ש×× ×©×××× ×××. ש×××× ××ש×× ××× ××¤×©×¨× ×ס×× ×ר×ש×× × ×פת×× ×§×©×¨ ×ס×ר ×¢× ××ער×: ××¨× ××ש×.\n" +
"\n" +
"××××, ×שת××××ª× ×©× ×שפ××ת ×צ××× ×¢× ××××ת ××××× ×, ×¢××¨×¢×¨× ×ת ×ס×ס ×××ס×× ×©× ××××××, ××ר××ת ××× ××סר ×צ×××ת ש×××× ×. ××סר ××צ×××ת ××× × ××¦× ×¢× ××× ×××× × ×× ×, ש×ק×× ×ת ש×ש×ת ש×× ×©×××××§× ××¢×× ××× ×§×¦×¨ ××××. ×××× × ××× ××צע רפ×ר××ת ענפ×ת ××××קת ×××××ת ×××××××. ת××××× ××¢×קר××× ×©× ×רפ×ר×× ××× ××××ר×× ××× × ×××¢×××ת ×× ×××××, ×× ×שפ××ת ××צ××× ×©×××××§× ×××××ת, ×תנ×××ת ××× ××× ×ª×קף. ×¢×§× ×× × ××¦× ××¦× ×©× ×××ס ××תק××××××ת ר××ת ××××× ×. צ×צ×× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×××, ×ק×סר ×××× ×××, ×××¡× ×××ש ×ת ש×ש×ת ××× ×ת××××ª× ×©× ×שפ××ת ××צ×××× ××ס××ר×× ××××-××× ×, ××ר××ת ×ש×××, ×××× ×§××× ××¢××× ×××ש ש××× ×× ×ת ש××: ש×ש×ת ××× ×××ר××ת. ×××× ××ס××× ×××ש ×©× ×ש×ש×ת ×× ×××× ×ת ××©×§× ×רצ×× ××××××. ×¢×××ת×× ×¢× ××¢×× ×קרקע×ת, ××× ×¢× ×¤××ש×ת ×××××¥ ××××ק×× ×¤× ××××× ××××¢×××× ×××××©× ×©×× ×ת ×ש××××. ××¨× ×××ר×× ×צ××× ×©×¤×¨×¥ ×שנת 184, ס××× ×ת ת××××ª× ×©× ×¢××× ×× ×©××××× ×¦××××× ××××××× ×××××ת ×ת×× ××××× × ××××ק×× ×ת ××××× × ××ספר ×××× ×ת ק×× ×ת. תק××¤× ×× ××××¢× ×תק×פת ש××ש ××××××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ×'××, שש ×¢×©×¨× ××××××ת ××ש×ש××ת ××ר×××ת ××צפ×× ×ת: ×תק××¤× ××פ×× ×©× ×¡××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ×'××\n" +
"\n" +
"ש××ש ××××××ת ×ת×××× ×שנת 280 ת×ת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×'××. ×××× ××××× ×× × ××©× ××× ×§×¦×¨ ××××. ×ת×××ת ×××× ×-4 ×××× ××××¢×××× ×ס×× (×××× ×××× ×× ×¡×× ×× ×× ×× × ××× ) ××ת××¨× ×××תר ×ת ××××× ×, ××ר××× ××× ×××××¨× ×¢×¦××× ×©× ×¡×× ×× ×× × ××× ×× ××ר×× ×× ×ר ×××× ××ס×. ×שנת 303 ×××× ×× ×©× ×××¢×× ×××× ×××¨× ×©×ס××¤× ×× ×××©× ×ת צ'× ××× ×©×סצ'×××. ×ש×××Ö¹× Ö°×-× ×Ö¼, שנ×××¤× ×ס×× ×ת×××ת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×××, ×××¨× ××××× ×ס××, ×××©× ××ק×× ××× × ×××צ××× ××××¨× ×ת ×©× × ×§×סר×× ×××ר×× ×× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×'××. ××תר ×שש-×¢×©×¨× ×××× ×ת ××ק×× ×¢× ××× ××××¢×××× ××תנ××× ×צפ×× × ×©× ×¡××. ×צפ×× ×××××× ×××× ×××× ×§×¦×¨ ×¢× ××× ×¤× ×'×××, ×× ××× ×××ס ×נס××× ×¤×××©×ª× ××ר×× ×¡×× ××××××ª× ×תפ×רר×. נס××× × ×סף ×××××× ×צפ×× ××צע ×¢× ××× ×ק×סר ××××××, ש×ק×× ×ת ×ש×ש××ת ×צפ×× ××ת, ס××¨× ×©× ×ש×ר×× ×ק××××× ×©×©××× ×ס×× ×©×צפ×× ×× ×ר ×××× × ×¦×.\n" +
"\n" +
"×¢× ×פ××××× ×©× ×¡× ××ר××× ×©× ××××× ×, ××× ×× ×ק×סר ××××, נצר ×ש×ש×ת ×'××, ש×××ש ×ת ש×××× ×ש×ש×ת ××ר×× ××××× × . ש×ש×ת ×× ××××ª× ×ר×ש×× × ×××× ×ש×ש××ת ××ר××××ת ש×××× ×ת ש×ש××ת ס×× ×, צ×, ×××× × ×צ'×. ×××¨×ª× ×©× ×ש×ש××ת ××ר××××ת ××××ª× ×'××נק×× ×, ××× × × ×'×× × ×©× ×××× ×. ×תק××¤× ×× ×תק×××× ××ק××× ×©×ª× ×××× ×ת ×נש×××ת ×¢× ××× ×©×ש××ת ש×× ×ת ×צפ×× × ×××ר××× ×©× ××רץ נקר×× ×ª×§×פת ×ש×ש××ת ×צפ×× ×ת ×××ר×××ת. ש×ש×ת ס×× ×§×¦×¨×ª ××××¢×, ×צ×××× ×××× ×ת ××××× × ×589 ×××ר ×××¢× 300 שנ×ת פ×ר××.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת ××× ×: ×××¨× ×ש××ש××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ××× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"×שנת 618 × ×ס×× ×©×ש×ת ××× ×, פ×ת×ת ×¢××× ××ש ×©× ×©××ש×× ×××××ש×× ×ת×××× ×××× ×ת ××××× ××××××. ×תק××¤× ×× ×¤×¢×× ×ש×רר×× × ×××¢×× ××× ××× ××× ×¤×. ××××××××, ש××× ×××ר ×ס×× ××ר ×××× ×-1, ××××¨× ××ת ×רש××ת ×©× ××××× × ×××××¥ ×¢× ××× ××שפ×× ×ק×סר×ת. צ'×× ×-×× (ש××× ×©× ×××× ×), ××רת ×ש×ש×ת ××××ª× ××××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ××¢×ר ×××××× ×××תר ××¢×××. תק×פ×ת ××× × ×××× × ×ש××ת ×ר×× ×תק×פ×ת ×ש×ש×× ××××ש××ת ×××תר ×××ס××ר×× ×©× ×¡××. ××××, ×¢× ××£ ×ש×ש××, ×××× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ××× × ××× ××××ש ×××××× × ×××× × ×§×¨×¢×ª ×שנ×ת ×××× ×©××××× ×ק×××××. תק××¤× × ×ספת ×©× ×××ס ××××¢× ××××× ×: תק×פת ××ש ×ש×ש××ת ×עשר ××××××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת ס×× × ×ש×× ×ת×× ×צפ×× ××ת, ×××× ××'××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ס×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"×שנת 960 ×צ×××× ×©×ש×ת ס×× × ××ס××£ ×ספ×ק ×× ××× ×××× ×ת ס×× ×ª×ת ש×××× ×. ת×ת ש×××× ×¡×× ×, ש×××¨×ª× ××××ª× ×§××פנ×, ×××× ×ª×§×פת צ×××× ×××©× ×ס××. ×××× ×©×ש×ת ס×× × ×× ××××ª× ××× ×פ××××× ××××× ××××× ××××ר. ××נצ'×ר×× ×××××¨× ××× ××××× ×ת××××ª× ×××××ª× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ×××× ×××××× ×ת ××1115 ×¢××ª× ×ש×××× ××נצ'×ר×× ×©×ש×ת ×'×× ××'×רצ'× ×ת (××'×רצ'× ×× ××× ×××ת××× ×©× ××נצ'×ר××) שת×× 10 שנ×× ×××¢× ×ת ש×ש×ת ×××× ×ת×××. ש×ש×ת ×'×× ×שת××× ×× ×¢× ×©×××× ×צפ×× ×¡××, ×ת××× ××××¨× ×ס×× ×ת ק××פנ×, ×× ×©××××¥ ×ת ש×ש×ת ס×× × ×ס×× ×ת ×××¢××ר ×ת ×××¨×ª× ×××× ××'×××. ש×ש×ת ס×× × ×× ××××¦× ×¢× ××× ×©×ש×ת ×'×× ×××ר×× ×¢× ×××¨×ª× ×ש×ש×ת ×'×× ×ש×××× ××¢×××× × ×©××. ×תק××¤× ×©×××ר ××× ××ק×× ×©××ש ×××××ת ×××××ת ×ש××× ×©× ×¡×× (××××ת ס×× ×, ××××ת ×'×× ×××××× ×©××ש×ת ×©× ×××¢×××× ×©× ×§×¨×× ××××ת ש×× ××ער××ת). ×תק××¤× ×× × ×¢×©× ×¤×ת×××× ×ש××¢×ת××× ×××× ××××××, ××× ×נר×× ×¢×§× ××××¥ ×צ××× ×©×××¤×¢× ×¢× ××××ת ס×× × ××¦× ×©×× ×ת×× ×צפ×× ××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ×××× ×××××\n" +
"\n" +
"××××ת ×'×× ××××ª× ×ר×ש×× × ×××× ××××××ת ×ס×× ×©××××¡× ×¢× ××× ×××× ×××××, ש××ש××× ××××©× ×× ×ת ××××ת ס×× × ×××××× ×ר××× ×עק××× ××× ×©××××ª× ×××××× ×ר×ש×× × ×××ס××ר×× ×× × ×¢×©× ×©×××ש ××ר××¢ ×נשק ××. ×××ר ת×× ×××××× ××× ×¢××× ×©× ×©××× ×××¢× ××× ×ס×× (ש××××ª× × ×ª×× × ×ש×××× ×××× ×××××), ×¢××× ×©× ×§×¨× \"×ש××× ×××× ××××\" (Pax Mongolica). ש××× ×× ××פשר ×× ×סע×× ×××ער×, ××××ת ××¨×§× ×¤×××, ×××××¢ ×ס×× ×××ש××£ ×ר×ש×× × ×ת ××צרת×× ××ער×. ×ס××, × ×××§× ×××× ××××× ××× ××× ×©×¨×¦× ××××× ×ס×× ×ת ×× ××× ×××× ××××× ×××× ××× ×©×¨×¦× ××××¥ ×ת ××× ×××× ×ס×× ×× ×עצ××. ק××××× ×××, שנ×× × ×¢× ×ק×××¦× ×שנ×××, ×ק×× ×ס×× ×ת ש×ש×ת ×××× (××××××ת: \"×ש×ש×ת ×ר×ש×× ×\") ×× ××××ª× ×××××× ×ר×ש×× × ×©××©×ª×¨×¢× ×¢× ×× ×©××× ×©× ×¡×× ×ש×××¨×ª× ××××ª× ××××'×× × (××××'×× × ××××ª× ×××¨×ª× ×©× ×©×ש×ת ××'× ×× ×ש×ש×ת ×× ×©××× ×¢× ×¡×× ××××).\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ת××××ª× ×××ש ×©× ×תר××ת ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"××§×¨× ××¢× ×ס××, ××××ª× ×ת×ר×ר×ת ר×× ×××ס ×ש×××× ×\"×ר××\" ×××ש, ×ת×ר×ר×ת ש××ס××£ ×××××× ××תק××××××ת ×××ר×× ××××× × ×©×תפת×× ××××ק ×ש×××× ×©× ×××£ ×××¢×©× ×× ××××¥ ××××××ת×× ×©× ×¡××. ×ת ×ש×××× ×××× ×××× ×××××£ ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ××× × ×שנת 1368. ש×ש×ת ×× ×¤×ª×× ×ª×§××¤× ×©× ×¤×¨××× ××ת××ש×ת תר××ת×ת: ××××× ×ת, ×××¢×קר תעש××ת ×פ×רצ××, × ×¡×§× ×××××× ×©×× × ×××¢× ×§××× ×××, ס××ר×ת ס×× ××ת × ×¢× ×ר××× ×××ק××× ×ס ×××××, ××××¢×ת ×¢× ×××פ×× ×××ר×××× ×©× ×פר××§× ××סע×ת×× ×©× ×¦'× × ××. ס×× ×× ×ª× ×¦× ×¡×¤×× ×ת ש××××××ת ××× ××× ×©×× ×¢× 1,500 ××× ×ת ×©× ×¡××ר×ת ××××××× ××צ×× ×× ×××××× ××××××× ×©××× ×רש××ª× ××××ª× ×עת. ××תר ×100,000 ××× ×ת ×ר×× ×××¦×¨× ×× ×©× × ×ספר×× ×¨××× × ×פס×. ×ש ××××¢× ×× ×× ×©××××× ×ס×× ×ת ×תק×פת ××× × ××××ª× ××××× ××תק××ת ×××תר ××¢×××.\n" +
"\n" +
"×ק×סר ××× ×-××, ××××¡× ×ש×ש×ת, ×× ×× ×ת ××ס×××ת ×× ××××ª× ×©× ××××× × ×××¢× ××ס×ר ×תעש××× ×××ת××§× ××¢×קר ×××××ת ×ר××××× ×××××ר ××ק×××, ×נר×× ××©× ××צ×× ××ק××× ×©× ×ק×סר. ××ר×ת פ××××××ת ××¢×ר×ת ש×תפת×× ××××× ×©× ×ת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ס×× × ××©× ×××× ××××× ×¤××¨×§× ×××××ת××× ××××××, ××××§× ×××ש××¨× ××××ר×× ×××ש. ××× ××, ×××× ××ק ×××סר ×××קת ×¢×××× ××××× ×. ×××ק×× × ×× ×ס×ר נש××¨× ×××××× ×¢×× ×תק×פת ש×ש×ת ס×× ×, ×× ×עת ×× ××× ×× ×¢× ×¡××ר×× ×ר×× ×× ×©×××× ××××¨× ×××××עת ס×ר ××××¥ ××× ×¡×× ×ש×ר ××¢×××.\n" +
"\n" +
"××× ×©×××£ ××××, ש×××× ×ק×סר × ×¢×©× ××ק ××תר ×××תר ×¢× ××£ ש××צר ×ק×סר×ת ×¢×©×ª× ×©×××ש נר×× ×פק×××× ××ש×ת××× ×©××× ××ר×××× ×תפק××× ×ש×××£ ×©× ××××× ×.\n" +
"\n" +
"××××× ×©×××× ×××× ××××× ×¤××ª× ××××××ס××× ××-40% ××-60 ×××××× × ×¤×©. ×©×ª× ×××ת ××××ר ××תר ××ספר ×××פ×. ×ער×× ×××× ×××ª×¤×ª× ××§×¦× ××××¥ ××עק××ת ×× ×××× ×××פ××¢ ×× ×ª×¢×©××× ××¢×ר×. ×ת×צ×× ××תער××ת ש×××× ×ת, × ×× ×¢× ×ס×× ×תפת×××ª× ×©× ×ר×× ××ר×× × ×צ×××¦× ×××ק×× ××ת צ××× ×ספר ×¨× ×©× ×¢×¨×× ×©×××× ×ר×××× ×ק××××× ××××ר×× ××ק×פ×× ××ת×.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] תק×פת ××× ×: ××תפת××ת ××××××\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת ××× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"××ר×ת ×ס×××× ××ס×ר ×¢× ×××× ×ת ××ר×ת, ×××תר×××ת ×פנ×××ת ××¢× ××× × ××××× ×, ס×× ×ª×ת ש×××× × ×©× ×©×ש×ת ××× × ×× ××××ª× ×××××ת. ×ס×ר ×¢× ×××× ×ת ××ר×ת, ×××¢×קר ×¢× ×פ×, ××ש×× ××תק××× ××ק×סר ××× ××× ×שת×× ××× ×××××ª× ×××¡× ×§×©×¨×× ××פ××××××× ×¢× ××××× ×ת ×ס××××ת ×ת ס××. צ××× ×©× ×¡×× ××ש ×ת ×× ×× ×××¦× ×××× ×©×× ×פ××× ××סע×ת×× ×¢× ××××¤× ×פר×ק×. ×ס×× ×× ×× ×צ×××× ×××צר ××©×¤×¢× ×ס×××ת ×××רקס××.\n" +
"\n" +
"××ת ××ר××× ××רש×××ת ×××תר ××× ×ת×××× ×××× ××ת ××××¥ ×ס×× ×ת ×©× ×××ª× ×ª×§××¤× ××××ª× ×סע×ת×× ×××××× ×©× ×¦'×× × ×Ö¶×, סר×ס ××ס××× ×נצר ××שפ×× ××× ××××ת, ×שר ××××× ×©××¢× ×סע×ת ××××× ×פ××ר×× ××× 1405 ×1433 שע××¨× ××× ×××ק××× ×ס ××××× ×××××× ×©×× ×××××¢× ×¢× ×××£ ×תק××× ×××××. ××¡×¢× ×ר×ש×× ×©× ××, ××× 62 ספ×× ×ת שנש×× 28,000 ××××× â ××× ×¡×¤×§ ××סע ×××× ××××× ×××תר ×××ס××ר×× ××× ×ש×ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"××××, ×קר×ת ס××¤× ×©× ×××× ×-15, ×××× ××ס×ר ×¢× ××ר×× ××××× × ××× ×ת ספ×× ×ת ××¢××ת ××שר ×פ××× ×××ק××× ×ס ××× × ×סר ×¢× ××× ×××ר××× ××¢××× ×ת ××××× ×. ×××× ×§×××ת ×ס××× ×¢× ×× ×©×¦×¢× ×× × × ×§× ××× ×××× ×¢× ×ק×סר×ת ××¤× × ×תקפ×ת ×©× ×©×××× ××. ×××××ת ××× ××××× ××ס××£ ×××צע ×××× ×-17.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ש×ש×ת צ'×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ש×ש×ת צ'×× ×\n" +
"\n" +
"×ש×ש×ת ×ק×סר×ת ×××ר×× × ×ס××, × ×ס×× ×1644 ××שר ××נצ'×ר×× ×××©× ×ת ××××× ×, ××××× ××ש×××× ×ת ש×ש×ת ××× × ××ק×××ת ××ק××× ×ת ש×ש×ת צ'×× × ×©×××¨×ª× ××××'×× ×. ×××©× ××¦× ××× × ×××× ××נצ'×ר×× ×××××ת עק×××ת ××× ×©×××××× ×שת××× ×¢× ××××ר×× ×©××× ×ש×××ת ש×ש×ת ××× × ×××××× ×××× ××× ×× ××ר××קת, ×××× ×××× ×××××. ×ת ××צ××× ×× ××× ××נצ'×ר×× ×ת×××ת תק×פת ש×××× × ×ש ××ק××£ ××××ת ×××× ×צ××× ××××ר ××××××× ×©×©××× ×¢× ××××× ×××ת ××ר×קר×××ת ס×× ××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"××ק ××××ס××ר××× ×× ×¨×××× ×תק××¤× ×©× ×ª×××ת ש×××× ×¦'×× × ×××©× ×¨×¦××£ ××ת×ר×ר×ת ×תר××ת×ת ש××× ×ס××£ תק×פת ××× ×. ×× ×ש ×××× ×ר×××× ×ת×××ת ש×××× ×¦'×× × ×ª×§××¤× ×©× ×©××ש×× ××תר ××שר נס×××. ×××ר×ת ×ק×סר קנ××©× × ××ª× ×××××× ××ק××£ ×××פ××¨× ×××תר ××©×¤× ×ס×× ×ת שנ××ª× ×¢× ×× ×ת×ת ש×××× × ×©× ×ק×סר ק××× ××× × ×××ר ×ק×××× ×××× ×©× ×× ××¢××××ת ××ש×××ת ×©× ×תר××ת ×ס×× ×ת. ש×ש×ת צ'×× × ×× ××ש××× ××ר××ת ××צר ×ספר×ת ××¢×××ת ××פ×ת×× ××ק×××ת ת×× ×××× ××××××× ××ש×× ×××¢××× ×××ש ××××ת ×ת×רס. ×× ×¦×××ת ××××××ס××× ××ש××× ×××××¥ ×תק×פת צ'×× × ××××××ס××ת ××××× ×, ש×שנת 1700 ×× ×ª× 100 ×××××× × ×¤×©, ××××¢× ×××× 220 ××××× ×שנת 1800.\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"×קר×ק×××¨× ×¦×¨×¤×ª×ת ×פ×רס×ת ××, נר××ת ××××§×ª× ×©× ×¡×× ××× ×ר××× ××, ×ר×× ××, ר×ס××, צרפת ××פ×\n" +
"×קר×ק×××¨× ×¦×¨×¤×ª×ת ×פ×רס×ת ××, נר××ת ××××§×ª× ×©× ×¡×× ××× ×ר××× ××, ×ר×× ××, ר×ס××, צרפת ××פ×\n" +
"\n" +
"××××× ×××× ×-19, × ×××©× ×©××××ª× ×©× ×©×ש×ת צ'×× × ××××× × ××ש×ש×× ×©××× ×× ×תפ×××. ס×× ×¡××× ××¨×¢× ×§×©×, ×תפ×צצ×ת ×××××ס×× ×××××¨× ×××ª× ×¤×סקת ×©× ×××× ×ת ×××¢×¨× ×נס××× ××ש×× ×עצ×× ××©×¤×¢× ××××× ×. ש×××¤×ª× ×©× ×ר××× ×× ×××ש×× ×ס×ר ××××ª× ×××§× ×××פ×××, × ×ª×§× ××תנ×××ת ×¢×× ×©× ××ש×ר ×ק×סר×, ×× ×©×××× ×פר××¦×ª× ×©× ××××ת ×××פ××× ×ר×ש×× × ×1840. ס××, ש×פס××× ××××××, ××××¦× ××צע ××ת×ר×× ×××××× ××פת×× ×ת × ×××× ×ס×ר ××¤×©× ×¢× ×××× ×ת ××ער×. ××ת×ר×× ××ר×××ר××××× ×©× ×¡×× ×××× ×ת ××¢×רת ××× × ×§×× × ××××× ×©× ×ר××× ×× ×1842 ×××ק ××××× × ×× ×'×× ×. ×× ×סף ××¨× ××× ×¤×× × (1864-1851) ×××¨× × ××× (1868-1853), ××× ×¢× ×ª× ××¢×ת ××××××ת ××ס××××ת שש××¤× ×עצ×××ת ×××××§× ×¢× ××× ×¨×ס×× ××××©× ×ת ק×פת ××××× × ××××¢× ×©××××× ×נפ××ת ×ש×××× ××.\n" +
"\n" +
"××ר×××ת ×ש×××× ××××× ××¢×קר ×¢× ××× ××××ת ×××¢×¨× ×©××××ª× ×××× ×¢×©× ××××× × ××ש××× ×× ×צ×× ×ת ש××ק×× ××ת ×ער××ª× ××××××ת.\n" +
"\n" +
"×××ר ש×× ××××××ת ×שנ×ת ×ש×ש×× ×©× ×××× ×-19, ×××× ×©×ש×ת צ'×× × ×××¤× ×××¢××ת ××××רנ××צ×× ××××× × ×¢× ××× ××צ××¢ רפ×ר××ת ××× ×ª×××× ×©×××ת×. ×××, ×ק×סר×ת ××××× × ×¦×ש×, ××× ×¢× ××ר××× ×©×רנ××× ××××× ×, ×××¦×¢× ××¢×× ×פ××× ×××××× ×ת ×ק×סר ×צע×ר ××ש××××, ××ר××× ××× ×××××× ×ת ×רפ×ר××ת ש×× ×××× ××ת×צע. ×רפ×ר××ת ×צ××××ת, ש××ש××¨× ×¢× ×× ×, ××× ×סר×ת ×¢×¨× ×¢×§× ×ש××ת×ת ×××××× ×©×תפש×× ×צ×רת ×ש××××. ××ק ×ספ×× ×ת ××§×¨× ××××ש×ת ×©× ×צ×× ××× ×× ×××× ××צע ×ר×, ×××ת ×¢×§× ××¢×××ת ×××××ת ×תקצ××× ×× ×××ª× ×©×× ×ש×××¨× ×× ×סף ×ר××שת ××ק שר×פ×. ×ת×צ×× ××× ××××ת \"×צ×× ×ס×× × ×××ש\" × ××× ×ª××ס×ת ×שפ×××ת ×× ×××××ת ס××-צרפת (1885-1883) ××× ×××××ת ס××-××¤× ×ר×ש×× × (1895-1894)\n" +
"\n" +
"×¢× ×ª××××ª× ×©× ×××× ×-20, ××××ª× ××צר ×ק×סר×ת ×ס×× ×ר×ס×, ש××ת×ת ××××ª× ××× ×××××××ס××× ×××× ××§×¦× ×××ª× × ××ª× ×עצ×ר×. ××××× × × ×©××× ×¢× ××× ×ק×סר×ת צ×ש×, ×××ת ש×רנ×ת ×××תר ש×תנ××× ××× ×¡×× ×©× ×¨×¤×ר××. ×××ª× ×©× ×ק×סר ××××× ××©× ××× ××× ××¤× × ×××ª× ×©× ×ק×סר×ת (×ש ××××¢× ×× ×©××× ×××¨×¢× ×¢× ×××) ×רס ×ת ×ס×××× ×××ר×× ×××ס×ס ×× ××× ×פק××××ת ××××× ×.\n" +
"\n" +
"[ער×××] ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ××ס××ר×× ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת\n" +
"\n" +
"×××××©× ×××××ת ××× ×©× ×ש××××, ×××× ×¤×§××× ×××©× ×¦×¢×ר××, קצ×× × ×¦×× ×ס×××× ×××, ש×××©×¤×¢× ×רע××× ×ת×× ×××פ×× ××× ×©× ×¡×× ×××-×¡× ××ת×ר×× ×קר×ת ×פ××× ××××× × ×©×ª×¡×ק ×ת ש×ש×ת צ'×× × ××ש×××× ×ת×פ×× ×ת ××××× × ×רפ××××ק×. ×תק××××ת ××צ'×× ×, ×תק××××ת ××פ×× ×ת צ×××ת, ×××× ×10 ×××ק×××ר 1911. ×××¦× ×©× × ××××ר ××תר, ×12 ×פ×ר××ר 1912 ××ק×× ×××ש×× ×××× ×ת ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת ×× ×× ×'×× × ×ש×ר××©× ×¢××× ×¡×× ×××-×¡× ×נש××× ×××× ×. ×× ×¡×× × ×××¥ ×××תר ×¢× ×ª×¤×§××× ××××ת ×××× ×©×ק×× ×שר פ××§× ××××ª× ×××× ×¢× \"×צ×× ×××ש\" ×××× ×¨×ש ×××ש×× ×ª×ת ש×××× ×¦'×× ×, ×××ק ××ס×× ×©× ××ª× ××××ת ×ק×סר ×××ר×× â ×××× ×× ×¨× ×¤×-××. ×שנ×× ×©×××ר ×××ª×¨×ª× ×נש××, × ××¡× ×××× ×©×ק×× ×עק××£ ×ת ס×××××ת××× ×©× ××××¢××ת ×פר×××נצ×××××ת ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ×××£ ××ר×× ×¢× ×¢×¦×× ×§×סר ×1915. ש××פ×ת×× ×ק×סר××ת ×©× ×××× × ×ª×§×× ××תנ×××ת ×¢×× ×©× ×××פ×× ×× ×©×¨×× ×××¦× ××פ××ª× ××××ת ×××× ×× × ×××ש ×©× ×§×סר×ת ××××× × ××× ×©× ×¨×¤××××ק×, ××× ×××× ×ת×ר××× × ×× ×××× ×¢× ××××ª× ×1916 ש×ש××ר ר×ק ש×××× × ×ס××. ס×× ×©×××ר ×××ª× ×©× ×××× × ×××§× ××× ××××©× ×רפ×××××§× × ×××ש, ×××× ×צ××××× ×ק××××× ×©×©××× ××××ר××× ×¢×× ×תק×פת צ'×× ×.\n" +
"\n" +
"×××ר××¢ ×סר ××ש×××ת (××¢×× × ××עצ××ת ××××¥ ×ס××) ש×תר×ש ×1919 ××××ª× ×ש××× ××ר××¢× ×¢× ×××©× ×××ס××ר×× ×ס×× ×ת ×××× ×-20, ××ר××¢ ×× ××× ×ª× ×עת ××ר××¢× ××××. ×תנ××¢×, ש××צ××× ×©× ×¨×¢ ×פ×××ס×פ××ת ××ער×××ת ××ק××××ת ×××××××¥ ×©× ×§×× ××ש×× ×§×צ×× ××× ××תר ש××× ×××ר ××× ××¨×¢× ×ת ××רע×× ×ק×נפ×××§× ×××ª× × ××ª× ×××ש×ר ××× ××××× ××ש××× ×ס××, ק×נפ×××§× ×©××ש×× ×¢× ×ס××¤× ×©× ××××.\n" +
"\n" +
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"\n" +
"××××× ×××¦×¢× ××ר××, ××××¨× ×ק×××× ×ס××× ××× ×××× ×××ש ××× ×¦× ××× ×. ××××ק ××× ×ק××××× ×× × ×××פ××× ×ק×××× ×ס××ת ×ס×× ×ת × ××©× ×עת×× ××××× ××עת×× ××ש×× ×ª×× ××× ××××ת ס××-××¤× ×שנ××× (1945-1931) ×¢× ××£ ש×××××ת ××¦×¨× ×××××¨× ×××ת ×××××ת ×× ×× ×¤××שת ××פנ×× ×1937 ×××ק ×××××ת ××¢××× ×שנ×××. ×××××× ××× ×©×ª× ××פ×××ת ××ש××× ×××ר ת×××¡×ª× ×©× ××פנ×× ×-1945, ××-1949 ש××× ×ק×××× ×ס××× ×ר×× ×©××× ×©× ××××× ×.\n" +
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"    ×¢×¨× ××ר×× â ××ס××ר×× ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡××\n" +
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"פרק ×× ×××§× ××סר. ××ª× ××××× ×× ×תר×× ××××ק×פ××× ×××ש××× ××ת×. ר×× ×¤×ר×× ×××£ ×ש×××.\n" +
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"×¢× ×××ר×× ×¢× ×ק××ª× ×©× ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡×× ×1 ×××ק×××ר 1949, ××××§× ×¡×× ×©×× ×רפ×××××§× ××¢×××ת ×©× ×¡×× ×ס×× ×××שת×ת ××רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת ש×ש×× ××××××× ×××ספר ×××× ×§×× ×× ×ס××××, ××שר ××× ×¨×¤×××××§× ×ש ××ש×× ×ר××× ×עצ×× ×ת ×××ש×× ×ס×× ×ת ××××ת×ת ×××ת×××סת ×× ×××ש×× ×××רת ×××× ×××××××. ××¦× ×× × ××©× ×¢× ×שנ×ת ×תשע×× ×©× ×××× ×-20, ××שר ש×× ×××× ×¤×××××× ×רפ×××××§× ×ס×× ×ת ××××× ×××ª× ××פסקת ×××¢× × ×פ××××ת ×××××ª× ××ש×ת ס×× ××××××.\n" +
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"    * ××× ××× ×× ×©× ×××ס××ר×× ×©× ×¡×× â ×××× ××ת×רת ×ת ×××ר××¢×× ××××ש×× ××ש×××× ×ת××××ת×× ×©× ×¡××.\n" +
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"[ער×××] ×קר××× × ×ספת\n" +
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"    * ×¢×× ××× ×¦' ×' ש×, צ××××ª× ×©× ×¡×× ××××רנ×ת, ××צ×ת ש×ק×, 2005.\n" +
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"[ער×××] ק×ש×ר×× ××צ×× ×××\n" +
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"    * ×ר×× × ×ר-×××××× ×ר, ס×× ×××× ×, ק×נפ×צ××ס ×××× ×, ××תר \"××××× ×ק×ר×\"\n" +
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"[ער×××] ×ער×ת ש×××××\n" +
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"   2. ^ ××ª× ×¢× ×רס×× ××תר ×ר×××××× (×ת×× ×ס×× ×ת ×פ×ש×ת)\n";


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"åã³ä¸­å½å¤§é¸ãçµ±ä¸ããéã»åã®çæã®æ代ã¯æ±ã¢ã¸ã¢ã®åå°ä½å¶ããã£ã¨ãå¸åçã¨ãªã£ãã¨ããè¦æ¹ã主æµã§ãããéã¯é«å¥éºãã¿ã ãã«çªå¥ã¨é交ãã辺å¢ãä¾µãããã¨ãããããè¨ä¼ãããã¨ããããé å¾ã«å¤±æãããåã¯ãæ°ç¾ã¨é£åããé«å¥éºã»ç¾æ¸ãæ»äº¡ãããæé®®å島ãå·çæ¯éãããã¨ããããæ°ç¾ã«æåããé¡ãã¯ãå¶ããªãã£ãããããã£ã¦éã»åã®åå°ã¯å®å¹æ¯éã¨ã¯ç¡é¢ä¿ã«å½¢æãããããã«ãªã£ããåã®åå°ä½å¶ã®ä¸ã§ã¯ãå¾ä»¤çãªæ¿æ²»ä½å¶ã»ä»æçãªæåãå±æãããã\n" +
"\n" +
"ä¸æ¹ãçªå¥ã西å諸å½ãæå±ããã¨ããããã®å°åã«å¯¾ããæ¯éã¯ç´æ¥æ¯éã¨ãã¦ã®å·çãå¤äº¤æ¯éã¨ãã¦ã®åå°ã¨ã¯ç°ãªã£ãç¾ç¸»æ¿ç­[17]ããããªãããã\n" +
"\n" +
"[ç·¨é] é¢é£é ç®\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 中è¯äººæ°å±åå½\n" +
"    * 中è¯æ°å½\n" +
"    * 中å½å¸çä¸è¦§\n" +
"    * 中å½ã®é¦é½\n" +
"    * 中å½å²æ代åºå表\n" +
"          o å¤åå¨å¹´è¡¨\n" +
"          o é­æååæ表\n" +
"    * åå·ä¸è¦§\n" +
"    * äºååå²ï¼æ¸ã«ãã£ã¦å¬èªãããæ­£å²ï¼\n" +
"    * 中å½å²é¢ä¿è¨äºä¸è¦§\n" +
"    * ãã«ãªã®æ­´å²\n" +
"    * é¦æ¸¯ã®æ­´å²\n" +
"    * å°æ¹¾ã®æ­´å²\n" +
"    * 中å½ã®é貨å¶åº¦å²\n" +
"    * 中å½ã®ä»æ\n" +
"    * 中å½æ³å¶å²\n" +
"    * 中å½å\n" +
"\n" +
"Wikibooks\n" +
"ã¦ã£ã­ããã¯ã¹ã«ä¸­å½å²é¢é£ã®æç§æ¸ã解説æ¸ãããã¾ãã\n" +
"[ç·¨é] è注\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. ^ æµæ±çç´¹èå¸éå¤ã«ããéµå¢ã禹ã®ãã®ã§ããã¨ãããæ¦å½æ代åå°ãæ¯éãã¦ããè¶çå¾è·µã禹ã®å­å­«ãæ¨æ¦ãã¦ãããã¨ãå¤ã®æ¡çããå²è¨ãé­ç注ãªã©ã§æ·®æ²³ã¨é·æ±ã®ä¸­éã«ããåå·£ã§æ­»ãã ã¨ãã¦ãããã¨ãªã©ã«ããã\n" +
"   2. ^ æ²³åçã«ããå師äºéé ­éºè·¡ãå¤ã®ãã®ã§ã¯ãªããã¨ããã¦ããããææ¸ãªã©ãçºè¦ããã¦ããªããã確å®ã¯ããã¦ããªããã¾ãå師äºéé ­éºè·¡ã§ã®çºæçµæããæ®·ã¨ã®é£ç¶æ§ã確èªãããããç´°ããåæã«ããã¦ã¯æ®·ã¨ã®éé£ç¶æ§ã確èªããã¦ãããããå師äºéé ­éºè·¡ãå¤çæã®ãã®ã§ãã£ã¦ããå¤ãé»æ²³æµåèµ·æºã®çæã§ãã£ããã©ããã¯è«äºä¸­ã§ããã\n" +
"   3. ^ 代表çãªéºè·¡æ®·å¢ãæåã§ããããæ¥æ¬ã§ã¯ä¸è¬ã«æ®·ã¨å¼ã°ããããåã®å°ãæ®·çæã®æé·ã¨ããã¦ãããåãèªç§°ã§ããã¨ãã説ãããããã中å½ã§ã¯åã¨å¼ã¶ã»ããä¸è¬çã§ããã\n" +
"   4. ^ ãã ãæ®·ãå西ããä¾µå¥ãã¦ããéç§æ°æã«ããå¾æçæã ã¨ãã説ããããããã¯å師äºéé ­éºè·¡ã§ã¯ééå¨ãç¾å°çç£ããã¦ããã®ã«å¯¾ããæ®·æ代ã®ééå¨ã¯ä¸»ã«èæ¹é¢ã§çç£ããã¦ãããã¨ã確èªããã¦ãããã¨ã«ããã\n" +
"   5. ^ å½åã¯æ¼¢é­é©å½ã®éã«æ¼¢ã®å®åãé­å®®å»·ã«ååããç®çã§å¶å®ããããã®ã§ãã£ãããåªãããã®ã§ãã£ãããã«ä¸è¬çãªå®åç»ç¨ã«ä½¿ç¨ãããããã«ãªã£ããããã¯ä¸­æ­£å®ãéãã¦å°æ¹ã®ä¸è«ãåæ ãã人äºæ¿ç­ããããªããã®ã§ãå°æ¹ã§åæã®ãã£ããã®ããã®ç¨åº¦ã«å¿ãã¦åä½ã«åãå®åã¨ãã¦ç»ç¨ãããã®ã§ãã£ããå®åã¯èªèº«ã®åä½ã¨å®è·ã®å®åã«å¾ã£ã¦ä¸å®ã®å®è·ãæ­´ä»»ãããå°æ¹ã®ä¸è«ã«åºã¥ãã¨ã¯ãããä¸è¬çã«å®¶æãéè¦ãããå¾åã«ããããä¸åã«å¯éãªããä¸åã«å¢æãªããã¨ãããããååææ代ã«ãªãã¨å®è·åã§åèªçãªæ¸æµå®è·ã¨æ¿æµå®è·ãè²´ææè­ã«ãã£ã¦æ確ã«åããããã¾ã家æã«ãã£ã¦å®è·ãåºå®ãããå¾åãé¡èã¨ãªã£ãããã®ãããªå¾åã¯å°å¶æ¯éã貫徹ãããã¨ããçå¸ã®æåã¨å¯¾ç«ãããã®ã§ãã£ããããå®åã®æ´çããããªã£ã¦æ¸æ¿ã®åºå¥ããªããåªåãç¶ããããããããçå¸ãè²´æ社ä¼ã®è§£ä½ãã®ãã®ãæãã§ããããè²´æ社ä¼ã®ä¸ä½ã«çå¸æ¨©åãä½ç½®ã¥ãããã¨ã§ãã¨ã©ã«ã­ã¼ã維æãããã¨ãã¦ãããããå®è·å¶åº¦ã®æ ¹å¹¹çãªæ¹å¤ã«ã¯è³ãããå®è·ã®å®¶æã«ããç¬å å¾åãæãããã¨ã¯åºæ¥ãªãã£ãã\n" +
"   6. ^ 1916å¹´8æã«å¾©æ´»ãããã\n" +
"   7. ^ ããã¯ã­ã·ã¢é©å½ã«å¯¾ããã·ããªã¢åºåµã«ããã¦æ¥ä¸­ä¸¡è»ãååããã¨ããç§å¯æ¡ç´ã§ããã\n" +
"   8. ^ 1928å¹´ï½30å¹´ã«åå½ã¨äº¤æ¸ãã¦é¢ç¨èªä¸»æ¨©ãå復ããé¢ç¨ãå¼ãä¸ããå¡©ç¨ã¨çµ±ä¸æ¶è²»ç¨ããã ãã¦è²¡æºã確ä¿ãããã¢ã¡ãªã«ã¨ã¤ã®ãªã¹ã®éè¡è³æ¬ã«ãæ³å¹£ãã¨ããç´å¹£ã使ç¨ããã秤é貨幣ã§ãã£ãé両ãå»æ­¢ãããããã«ã¢ã¡ãªã«æ¿åºã«éã売ã£ã¦ãã«ãå¤çºè³éã¨ãã¦è²¯èãããããã«ããå½éçãªé価格ã®ä¸­å½ã®å½åçµæ¸ã«å¯¾ããå½±é¿ã大å¹ã«ç·©åãããããã®ãããªçµæ¸æ¿ç­ãç©æ¥µçã«æ¨é²ããã®ã¯å½æ°æ¿åºè²¡æ¿é¨é·ã®å®å­æã§ãå½¼ã¯å­«æã®å¦»å®æ¶é½¢ã®å¼ã§ã妹ã¯ã®ã¡ã«èä»ç³ã¨çµå©ããå®ç¾é½¢ã§ãã£ãã\n" +
"   9. ^ åå·´ãããã¯æ³¢å·´ã¨ã¯ãããã人ã®èªç§°ãæ¥æ¬èªã«è¨³ãã°ãããã人ã®äººæ°æ¿åºã¨ããæå³ã§ãããåå·´ã¨æ³¢å·´ã¯ã¨ãã«ãã½ã±ãã¨èª­ãã\n" +
"  10. ^ å°å»ºå¶åº¦ã¯æ®·ä»£ãããããªããã¦ãããã殷代å°å»ºå¶ã«ã¤ãã¦ã¯ãã¾ãæ確ãªãã¨ã¯ããããªããæ®·ã§ã¯å°å»ºããããªããã¦ããå°åã¨æ¹å½ã¨å¼ã°ãããå¤æ§ãããã¯ç°æ°æã®å½å®¶ã®å­å¨ãç¥ãããæ®·ãæ¹å½ã®é£çã®ç主ã§ãããå°å»ºãããå½ãã¯æ®·ã®åæå½å®¶ã§ããã¨ãã説ãããã詳ãããã¨ã¯ããããªããå¨ã§ã¯ä¸å®ã®åå¸ãåºæºã¨ããéã«åºã¥ããå°å»ºå¶ãåºæ±ã«ãããªãããã¨èãããã¦ãããããã®éå¶å½å®¶ã®å®æãä¸æã§ãããéãããªã¹çãªé½å¸å½å®¶ã¨ã¿ãè¦æ¹ãããéã¨å¨è¾ºè¾²å°ã§ããéãä¸ç·ã«ãªã£ã¦ï¼ãããéåã¨ããï¼ãè²´æã«ãã大åå°ææã§ããã¨ããè¦æ¹ããããæããã§ããã®ã¯éãæ¯éããè²´æãé·å­ç¸ç¶ã根幹ã¨ããè¡æå±åä½ããã£ã¦ããã¨ãããã¨ã§ããã®ãããªå±åä½ã«åºã¥ããæ¯éå½¢æãå®æ³å¶åº¦ã¨ãããå®æ³å¶åº¦ã«ã¤ãã¦ã¯æ®·ä»£ã«ããã®ã¼ãè¦æ¹ãããããåºæ±ã«ãããªãããã®ã¯æ¥ç§ãããã¯æ¦å½æ代ã§ãã£ãã¨ãã説ããããå¨ã®å°å»ºå¶ãå®æ³å¶åº¦ã®å»¶é·ã«ãããã®ã¨æããå°å»ºå礼ãå®æã¸ã®å çå礼ã®å»¶é·ã¨ãã¦æããè¦æ¹ãããã\n" +
"  11. ^ 中å½å¤æ¥ãã中å½ä¸çã9ã¤ã®å°æ¹ã«åããèãæ¹ãæ¼ ç¶ã¨å­å¨ããã中å½çæã®æ¯éé åããä¹å·ãã¨ããããããããªãã¡ã天ä¸ãã§ãã£ãããã ãä¹å·ã®æ¦å¿µã¯å¾æ¼¢æ代ã«ãããã¾ã§ã¯ã¯ã£ãããããã®ã§ã¯ãªãä¸æ§ã§ãªãã\n" +
"  12. ^ åæ¼¢æå¸ã®ã¨ãã«å·ã®ç£å¯æ¨©ã御å²ä¸­ä¸ã¸ç§»è¡ãããåºå²ãè¡æ¿å®ã¨ãªã£ãã¨ããè¦æ¹ãããããå¾æ¼¢æ«æã«åºå²ã«è»äºæ¨©ãèªããããã¨ãåºåè¡æ¿åä½ã¨ãã¦ã®å·ã¯ã«ããã«ç¾å®åããã¨ã¿ãè¦æ¹ãããã\n" +
"  13. ^ ãã®ããã®å·ãè¡æ¿åä½ã§ã¯ãªããè»ç®¡åºã®ãããªæ¦å¿µä¸ã®ç®¡çåä½ã§ããã¨ããè¦æ¹ãå¼·ãã\n" +
"  14. ^ åå¨ã®å®æè­·ãåµå§ããäºååè»å¶ããã£ã¦ããããåºåµå¶ã®æç«ã¨è¦åãè¦æ¹ããããããã«ã¤ãã¦ã¯è©³ãããã¨ã¯ããããªãã\n" +
"  15. ^ æè¡åºã®ç½®ãããå·ã¨é設置å·ã§ã¯å½ç¶å·®ç°ããã£ãã®ã§ããããå代ã¯ã»ãã«ååµã«åºã¥ãè¡è»å¶åº¦ããããªããã¦ããã大è¦æ¨¡ãªå¯¾å¤æ¦äºã®éã«ã¯ããã«æè¡åºé設置å·ã中å¿ã¨ãã¦åµãéãããããåå¾æã«ã¯ãã®ååµå¶ã常æåãããã¨ã§ç¯åº¦ä½¿å¶åº¦ããããªãããããã«ãªã£ãã\n" +
"  16. ^ ãªããå²æ¸ãããããããå¤äº¤è¨é²ã¨æ¥æ¬å½åã§ã®éé¡ãªã©åºååã«è¨è¼ãããå¹´å·ã®åé¡ãªã©ãããæ¥æ¬ã®å¤ä»£çæã¯ç¹ã«åæã¨ã®å¤äº¤é¢ä¿ãéè¦ãã¦ããã¨ããè¦æ¹ã主æµã§ããããåæã¨ã®é交äºå®ãæããã«ãããã¨ããç ç©¶ã¯ç¶ãããã¦ããã\n" +
"  17. ^ ããã¯é½è­·åºãéãã¦æå±æ°æãé¨æå¥ã«èªæ²»æ¨©ãä¸ãã¦éæ¥æ¯éãããã®ã§ãç¾ç¸»æ¿ç­ããããªãããå°åã§ã¯ç¾å°æ°ã®å½å®¶ã¯å¦å®ãããããã®ãã¨ã¯ç¾ç¸»å·ã®ä½æ°ãèªçºçã«ä¸­å½çæã®æåãåãå¥ãããã¨ãé»å®³ããã¨èãããã¦ãããç¾ç¸»æ¿ç­ã®ãããªãããå°åã§ã¯åå°ã®ãããªãããå°åã¨ã¯ç°ãªããæ¼¢å­ãå¾ä»¤ãªã©ã®æåã®å±æã¯ãããªããããåã®æ¯éãå¾éããã¨ãåã®æåããã®å°åã§ã¯è¡°éãããã¨ã«ãªã£ããåå°ãããå½ãã§åã®æ¯éãå¾éãããã¨ãæ¼¢å­æåãå­ç¶ãããã¨ã¨å¯¾ç§çã§ããã\n";


var korean =
"íêµ­ì ì­ì¬\n" +
"ìí¤ë°±ê³¼ â ì°ë¦¬ 모ëì 백과ì¬ì .\n" +
" ì´ ë¬¸ìë ë¨, ë¶ì¼ë¡ ë¶ë¨ë 1945ë ì´ì ì íêµ­ì ëí ì­ì¬ë¥¼ ì£¼ë¡ ê¸°ì íê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì­ì¬ (ì°í)\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì ì¬ ìë (ì ì )\n" +
"íì¸ Â· íì (ì ì)\n" +
"ã	ê³ ì¡°ì  - ë¨êµ°\n" +
"ì§êµ­\n" +
"ì\n" +
"ì¼\n" +
"êµ­\n" +
"|\n" +
"ì¼\n" +
"êµ­\n" +
"|\n" +
"ë¨\n" +
"ë¶\n" +
"êµ­\n" +
"|\n" +
"í\n" +
"ì¼\n" +
"êµ­	ì¼í	ì¥\n" +
"ì 	ë\n" +
"ì	ë¶\n" +
"ì¬\n" +
"ì§\n" +
"í	ë³\n" +
"í	ë§\n" +
"í\n" +
"ã	ê°\n" +
"ì¼	ã\n" +
"ã\n" +
"ë°±\n" +
"ì \n" +
"ã\n" +
"ã	ê³ \n" +
"구\n" +
"ë ¤	ã	ã\n" +
"ì \n" +
"ë¼	ã	ã\n" +
"ã	ã\n" +
"í\n" +
"ë°±\n" +
"ì 	í\n" +
"ë´	ë°\n" +
"í´\n" +
"ã\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤\n" +
"ã\n" +
"ã\n" +
"ì¡°ì \n" +
"ã\n" +
"ëíì êµ­\n" +
"ëí민국ììì ë¶\n" +
"ì¼ì  ê°ì ê¸° (ì¡°ì ì´ëë¶)\n" +
"êµ°ì ê¸°\n" +
"ëí민국	ì¡°ì ë¯¼ì£¼ì£¼ì\n" +
"ì¸ë¯¼ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì¸ë¬¼\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì­ì¬ë 구ì기 ìë ì´íì ì£¼ë¡ íë°ëì ë§ì£¼, ëê²ë ëììì ì§ì­ì ë°°ê²½ì¼ë¡ ë°ì ëì´ ì¨ íêµ­ì¸ì ì­ì¬ì´ë¤.\n" +
"목차 [ì¨ê¸°ê¸°]\n" +
"1 ì ì¬ ìë\n" +
"1.1 ì ì ì ìí 구ë¶\n" +
"1.2 문íì ìí 구ë¶\n" +
"2 ìê³  ìë (B.C. 2333ë ~ A.D. 1ì¸ê¸°)\n" +
"2.1 ê³ ì¡°ì  ìë\n" +
"2.2 ê³ ì¡°ì  ë©¸ë§ ì´í ì¬ë¬ëë¼ì ì±ì¥\n" +
"3 ê³ ë ìë (A.D. 1ì¸ê¸°~A.D. 900)\n" +
"3.1 ì¼êµ­ìë\n" +
"3.1.1 ì¼êµ­ìë ê²½ì \n" +
"3.1.2 ì¼êµ­ìë ì ì¹\n" +
"3.2 ë¨ë¶êµ­ìë\n" +
"4 ì¤ì¸ìë (A.D. 918ë ~ A.D. 1392ë)\n" +
"4.1 ê³ ë ¤ì ì ì¹\n" +
"4.2 ê³ ë ¤ì ê²½ì \n" +
"4.3 ê³ ë ¤ì ì¬í\n" +
"4.4 ê³ ë ¤ì 문í\n" +
"5 ê·¼ì¸ìë (A.D. 1392ë ~ A.D. 1506ë)\n" +
"5.1 ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ì ì¹\n" +
"5.2 ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ê²½ì \n" +
"5.3 ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ì¬í\n" +
"5.4 ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì 문í\n" +
"6 ê·¼ë íë기 (A.D. 1506ë ~ A.D. 1907ë)\n" +
"6.1 í기 ì¡°ì ì ì ì¹\n" +
"6.2 í기 ì¡°ì ì ê²½ì \n" +
"6.3 í기 ì¡°ì ì ì¬í\n" +
"6.4 í기 ì¡°ì ì 문í\n" +
"7 ê·¼íëìë (A.D. 1907ë ~ )\n" +
"7.1 ê°ê´\n" +
"7.2 ê·¼ëìë\n" +
"7.3 íëìë\n" +
"8 주ì\n" +
"9 ê°ì´ 보기\n" +
"10 참고문í ë° ë§í¬\n" +
"10.1 ì­ì¬ ì¼ë°\n" +
"10.2 ì¬ë¨, 기í, ì ë¶ 기ê´\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì ì¬ ìë\n" +
"\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì ì ì ìí 구ë¶\n" +
"íêµ­ì 구ì기 ìë(20ë§ ë ì´ì  ~ ì½ 1ë§ ë ì )\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì ì기 ìë(ì½ 1ë§ ë ì  ~ ì½ 4ì² ë ì )\n" +
"참고>> ì기 ë¶í¬ë¦¬ì íì ë§ë¬ë¦¬ ì ì , íµì ìë¸ëëì ì¡°ê°ë미 ìµí층, ê±°ì°½ ìë¶ë¦¬, íì² ííê³ë¦¬ ì ì  ë±ì ì¤ì기 ì ì ì§ë¡ ë³´ë ì¬íìë ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"문íì ìí 구ë¶\n" +
"íêµ­ìë [1](ë¹ê³µì)\n" +
"ì ì[2] ëë ë°°ë¬êµ­ ìë [3](ë¹ê³µì)\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ìê³  ìë (B.C. 2333ë ~ A.D. 1ì¸ê¸°)\n" +
"\n" +
"ëê²½ì ë°ë¬ë¡ ìì¬ ìì°ë¬¼ì´ ì기고 ì²­ëê¸°ê° ì¬ì©ëë©´ì ì¬ì  ì¬ì° ì ëì ê³ê¸ì´ ë°ìíìê³ , ê·¸ ê²°ê³¼, ë¶ì ê¶ë ¥ì ê°ì§ 족ì¥(êµ°ì¥)ì´ ì¶ííìë¤ê³  ì¶ì¸¡ëë¤. ì´ ì기ì ëíì ì¸ ì ì ì¼ë¡ ê³ ì¸ë, ë¹íí ëê², 미ì¡ë¦¬ì í ê¸° ë±ì´ ìë¤. ë¶ì¡±ì¥ì ì¸ë ¥ì í¤ì ì£¼ë³ ì§ì­ì ìì°ë¥´ê³ , ë§ì¹¨ë´ êµ­ê°ë¥¼ ì´ë£©íìë¤. ì´ ì기ì ì±ë¦½ë íêµ­ ìµì´ì êµ­ê°ê° ê³ ì¡°ì ì´ë¤. 기ìì  4ì¸ê¸°ê²½ ì² ê¸°ê° ë³´ê¸ëìê³ , ì´í, ê³ ì¡°ì ì 철기 문í를 ìì©íë©´ì ì¤êµ­ê³¼ ëë¦½í  ì ëë¡ í¬ê² ë°ì íìì¼ë©°, ë§ì£¼ì íë°ë ê°ì§ìë ë¶ì¬, 고구려, ì¥ì , ëì, ì¼í ë± ì¬ë¬ ëë¼ê° ì±ë¦½ë  ì ìë í°ì ì´ ë§ë ¨ëìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ì¡°ì  ìë\n" +
"ë¨êµ°ì¡°ì \n" +
"ìë§ì¡°ì \n" +
"ì¡°ì  ìë ì´ì ìë ìëë¼ìì ê±´ëì¨ ê¸°ìê° ì¸ì´ 기ìì¡°ì ì´ ì ì ì­ì¬ë¡ì ì¸ì ëìì¼ë, ì¼ì ê°ì ê¸°ë¥¼ ì íë¡ ì ì°¨ ë¶ì¸ëì´ íì¬ìë ëí민국과 ì¡°ì ë¯¼ì£¼ì£¼ìì¸ë¯¼ê³µíêµ­ì ì­ì¬íê³ ëª¨ë ì´ë¥¼ ê³µìì ì¼ë¡ ì¸ì íì§ ìê³  ìì¼ë©°, ì¬íìë¤ë ëì²´ì ì¼ë¡ ì´ ì¤ì ë¶ì íë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ì¡°ì  ë©¸ë§ ì´í ì¬ë¬ëë¼ì ì±ì¥\n" +
"철기문ëªì ë°ìë¤ì¸ ê° ëë¼ë¤ì 철기를 ì´ì©íì¬ ëìì ë°ì ìí¤ë©´ìë ëí¹í ì¬í íìµì ì ì§íìë¤. ë§ì ìêµ­ë¤ì´ ê²½ìíë ê°ì´ë° ì¼ë¶ë ë¤ë¥¸ ëë¼ë¥¼ ë³í©ëìê³ , ë¤ì ì°ë§¹ ìêµ­ì¼ë¡ ë°ì íì¬ ì¤ì ì§ê¶ êµ­ê°ë¥¼ íì±í  ì ìë 기ë°ì ë§ë ¨íê² ëìë¤.\n" +
"ë¶ì¬: ë¶ë¶ì¬, ëë¶ì¬, 졸본ë¶ì¬\n" +
"ì¥ì \n" +
"ëì\n" +
"ì¼í:\n" +
"ë§í\n" +
"ë³í\n" +
"ì§í\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ë ìë (A.D. 1ì¸ê¸°~A.D. 900)\n" +
"\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ìë\n" +
"고구려\n" +
"ë°±ì \n" +
"ì ë¼\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ìë ì´ë°ì 고구려ì ë°±ì ê° 주ëíì¼ë ì§í¥ì ì´í êµ­ë ¥ì´ ë§ê°í´ì§ ì ë¼ê° ì¼êµ­ìë í기를 주ë íë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ìë ê²½ì \n" +
"ì¼êµ­ì ê²½ì ë 기본ì ì¼ë¡ 물물êµí ê²½ì ë¥¼ 못 ë²ì´ë ì²´ì ìë¤ê³  íë¤.[ì¶ì² íì]\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ì¬ê¸°ìë ì ë¼ê° ìëì ìì ì ì¸ì ë¤ë 기ë¡ì´ ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ìë ì ì¹\n" +
"ì¼êµ­ì ì ì¹ë 기본ì ì¼ë¡ ì¤ìì§ê¶ì²´ì ë¥¼ í ëë¡ í ì ì ìê¶ ëë ê·ì¡±ì ì¹ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ë¨ë¶êµ­ìë\n" +
"ì ë¼\n" +
"ë°í´\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì¤ì¸ìë (A.D. 918ë ~ A.D. 1392ë)\n" +
"\n" +
"íêµ­ì¬ììë ê³ ë ¤ìë를 ì¤ì¸ìëë¡ ë³´ê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ì ì ì¹\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ë ìë¡ì´ íµì¼ ìì¡°ë¡ì 커ë¤ë ì­ì¬ì  ìì를 ì§ëë¤. ê³ ë ¤ì ì±ë¦½ì ê³ ë ì¬íìì ì¤ì¸ ì¬íë¡ ì´ííë ì°ë¦¬ ì­ì¬ì ë´ì¬ì  ë°ì ì ì미íë¤. ì ë¼ë§ì ëë(6ëí ì¸ë ¥) ì¶ì  ì§ìì¸ê³¼ í¸ì¡± ì¶ì ì ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ ì±ë¦½í ê³ ë ¤ë 골í ì주ì ì ë¼ ì¬íë³´ë¤ ê°ë°©ì ì´ìê³ , íµì¹ ì²´ì ë 과거ì ë¥¼ ì¤ìíë ë± í¨ì¨ì±ê³¼ í©ë¦¬ì±ì´ ê°íëë ë°©í¥ì¼ë¡ ì ë¹ëìë¤. í¹í, ì¬ìì ì¼ë¡ ì êµ ì ì¹ ì´ëì ìì©íì¬ ê³ ëì  ì±ê²©ì ë²ì´ë  ì ììë¤.\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ ìëë ì¸ì ì 침ìì´ ì ë¬ë¦¬ ë§ìë ì기ìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë ê³ ë ¤ë ì¤ê¸°ì°¬ í­ìì¼ë¡ ì´ë¥¼ ê·¹ë³µí  ì ììë¤. 12ì¸ê¸° íë°ì 무ì ë¤ì´ ì¼ì¼í¨ 무ì ì ë³ì ì¢ì ì ë¬¸ì  ê·ì¡± ì¤ì¬ì ì¬í를 ë³í ìí¤ë ê³ê¸°ê° ëì´ ì ë¶ì´ ë®ì ì¬ëë ì ì¹ì ì¼ë¡ ì§ì¶í  ì ììë¤.\n" +
"ì´í, ë¬´ì  ì§ê¶ê¸°ì ìëë¼ ê°ì­ê¸°ë¥¼ ì§ë ê³ ë ¤ í기ì ì´ë¥´ë¬ìë ìë¡­ê² ì±ì¥í ì ì§ ì¬ëë¶ë¥¼ ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ ì±ë¦¬íì´ ìì©ëì´ í©ë¦¬ì ì´ê³  민본ì ì¸ ì ì¹ ì´ëì´ ì±ë¦½ëìê³ , ì´ì ë°ë¥¸ ì¬í ê°íì´ ì§ì ëìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ì ê²½ì \n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ë íì¼êµ­ ì기ì í¼ëì 극복íê³  ì ìê³¼ ì ë를 ë§ëë ë± í ì§ ì ë를 ì ë¹íì¬ íµì¹ ì²´ì ì í ë를 í립íìë¤. ë, ìì·¨ ì²´ì ë¥¼ ì ë¹íë©´ì í ì§ì ì¸êµ¬ë¥¼ íìí기 ìíì¬ ìì  ì¬ìì ì¤ìíê³  í¸ì ì ìì±íìë¤. ìì¸ë¬ êµ­ê°ê° 주ëíì¬ ì°ìì ì¬í¸íë©´ì ê²½ìì§ë¥¼ íëìí¤ê³ , ììê³¼ ìê³µìì ì²´ì ë¥¼ í립íì¬ ìì ë ê²½ì  ê¸°ë°ì íë³´íìë¤.\n" +
"ëìììë 기ì ì ë°ë¬ë¡ ëì ìì°ë ¥ì´ ì¦ëëìê³ , ììì ìì ì ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ ëì ììì´ ë°ë¬íë©´ì ì ì°¨ ì§ë°©ììë ìì íëì´ ì¦ê°íìë¤. ìê³µìë ê´ì²­ ìê³µì ì¤ì¬ìì ì ì°¨ ì¬ìì´ë ë민ì ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡í ë¯¼ê° ìê³µìì ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ ë°ì í´ ê°ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ì ì¬í\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ì ì¬í ì ë¶ì ê·ì¡±, ì¤ë¥ì¸µ, ì민, ì²ë¯¼ì¼ë¡ 구ì±ëìë¤. ê³ ë ¤ ì§ë°°ì¸µì íµì¬ì ê·ì¡±ì´ìë¤. ì ë¶ì ì¸ìµëë ê²ì´ ìì¹ì´ìê³ , ê° ì ë¶ìë ê·¸ì ë°ë¥¸ ì­ì´ ë¶ê³¼ëìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë ê·¸ë ì§ ìì ê²½ì°ë ììëë°, í¥ë¦¬ë¡ë¶í° 문ë°ì§ì ì¤ë¥´ë ê²½ì°ì êµ°ì¸ì´ êµ°ê³µì ìì 무ë°ì¼ë¡ ì¶ì¸íë ê²½ì°ë¥¼ ë¤ ì ìë¤.\n" +
"ë°±ì±ì ëë¶ë¶ì ì´ë£¨ë ì민ì êµ°íì 거주íë ë민ì¼ë¡, ì¡°ì¸, ê³µë©, ì­ì ë¶ë´íìë¤. í¥, ë¶ê³¡, ì ê°ì í¹ì íì  êµ¬ì­ì 거주íë ë°±ì±ì ì¡°ì¸ ë¶ë´ì ìì´ì êµ°íë¯¼ë³´ë¤ ì°¨ë³ë°ìì¼ë, ê³ ë ¤ í기 ì´í í¹ì íì  êµ¬ì­ì ì¼ë° êµ°íì¼ë¡ ë°ëì´ ê°ë¤. íëì´ë ì¬í´ ë±ì¼ë¡ ì´ë ¤ìì 겪ë ë°±ì±ë¤ì ìíì ìì ìí¤ê¸° ìíì¬ êµ­ê°ë ì창과 ìíì°½ì ì¤ì¹íê³ , ì¬ë¬ ê°ì§ ì¬í ë³µì§ ìì±ì ì¤ì íìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ì 문í\n" +
"ê³ ë ¤ ìëì í´ë¹íë ì¤ì¸ 문íë ê³ ë 문íì ê¸°ë° ììì ì¡°ìë¤ì ë¸ë ¥ê³¼ ì¬ê¸°ê° ë³´íì ¸ ìë¡ì´ ììì ë³´ìë¤.\n" +
"ì êµê° ì ì¹ ì´ëì¼ë¡ ì±í, ì ì©ë¨ì¼ë¡ì¨ ì êµì ëí ì¸ìì´ íë ëìì¼ë©°, í기ìë ì±ë¦¬íë ì ë ëìë¤. ë¶êµë ê·¸ ì ë³ì´ íëëì´ ìí ì ë°ì ìí¥ì ë¼ì³¤ë¤. ì´ë° ê°ì´ë° ë¶êµ ì¬ìì´ ì¬íëê³ , êµì¢ê³¼ ì ì¢ì íµí©ì´ëì´ ê¾¸ì¤í ì¶ì§ëìë¤.\n" +
"ì¤ì¸ì ìì ì ê·ì¡± ì¤ì¬ì ì°ìíê³  ì¸ë ¨ë í¹ì§ì ëë¬ë´ê³  ìë¤. ê±´ì¶ê³¼ ì¡°ê°ììë ê³ ëì ì±ê²©ì ë²ì´ë ì¤ì¸ì  ììì ì°½ì¶íìì¼ë©°, ì²­ìì ì¸ìì ì ì¸ê³ì ì¸ ìì¤ì ìëíê³  ìë¤. 그림과 문íììë ì¤ì¸ì í격 ëì ë©ì ì°¾ì ë³¼ ì ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê·¼ì¸ìë (A.D. 1392ë ~ A.D. 1506ë)\n" +
"\n" +
"íêµ­ì¬ììë ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì  ìë를 ê·¼ì¸ìëë¡ ë³´ê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ì ì¹\n" +
"ì¡°ì ì ìê³¼ ìë° ê´ë£ë¤ì ìíì¬ íµì¹ëìë¤. ìì ìµê³  ëªë ¹ê¶ìë¡ì íµì¹ ì²´ì ì ì¤ì¬ì´ìë¤. ì¡°ì  ì´ê¸°ìë ê³ ë ¤ ë§ì ì±ë¦¬íì ì ì¹ ì´ëì¼ë¡ íë©´ì ì§ë°©ìì ì±ì¥í ì ì§ ì¬ëë¶ë¤ì´ ì§ë°°ì¸µì´ ëì´ ì êµ­ì ì´ëì´ ëê°ë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë 15ì¸ê¸° ë§ë¶í° ìë¡­ê² ì±ì¥í ì¬ë¦¼ì´ 16ì¸ê¸° íë° ì´í ì êµ­ì 주ëí´ ëê°ë©´ì íí를 ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ ì¬ë¦¼ì´ ë¶ì´íì¬ ë¶ë¹ì ì´ë£¨ìë¤. ì´í ì¬ë¬ ë¶ë¹ ì¬ì´ì ìë¡ ë¹ííë©° 견ì íë ë¶ë¹ ì ì¹ë¥¼ ì ê°íìë¤.\n" +
"ì ì¹ 구조ë ê¶ë ¥ì ì§ì¤ì ë°©ì§íë©´ì íì ì í¨ì¨ì±ì ëì´ë ë°©í¥ì¼ë¡ ì ë¹ëìë¤. ê´ë¦¬ ë±ì©ì íì°ì´ë ì§ì°ë³´ë¤ ë¥ë ¥ì ì¤ìíìê³ , ì¸ë¡ë¥¼ ê°ë°©íì¬ ëì ì ì¸ ê¶ë ¥ íì¬ë¥¼ 견ì íìë¤. ìì¸ë¬ ì¡ì¡°ë¥¼ ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ íì ì ë¶ë´íì¬ í¨ì¨ì±ì ëì´ë©´ì ì ì±ì íìë ì§í ê³¼ì ìì ì ê¸°ì ì¸ ì°ê²°ì´ ê°ë¥íëë¡ íìë¤. ì¡°ì ì ê³ ë ¤ì ë¹íì¬ í ë¨ê³ ë°ì ë 모ìµì ë³´ì¬ ì£¼ë©´ì ì¤ì¸ ì¬íìì ë²ì´ë ê·¼ì¸ ì¬íë¡ ëìê°ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ê²½ì \n" +
"ì¡°ì ì ê³ ë ¤ ë§ê¸°ì ííë êµ­ê° ì¬ì ê³¼ 민ì 문ì ë¥¼ í´ê²°íê³  ì¬ì  í충과 민ì ìì ì ìí ë°©ìì¼ë¡ ë본주ì ê²½ì  ì ì±ì ë´ì¸ì ë¤. í¹í ì ë¯¼ì¬ìì 주ì¥íë ìë ì ì¹ ì¬ììì 민ì ìì ì ê°ì¥ ë¨¼ì  í´ê²°í´ì¼ í  ê³¼ì ìë¤.\n" +
"ì¡°ì  ê±´êµ­ì 주ëíìë ì ì§ ì¬ëë¶ë¤ì ì¤ë ì ì±ì íë°©íë©´ì ëê²½ì§ë¥¼ íëíê³  ëì ìì°ë ¥ì ì¦ê°ìí¤ë©°, ë민ì ì¡°ì¸ ë¶ë´ì ì¤ì¬ ë민ë¤ì ìíì ìì ìí¤ë ¤ íìë¤. 그리íì¬ ê±´êµ­ ì´ë¶í° í ì§ ê°ê°ì ì¥ë ¤íê³  ìì  ì¬ìì ì¤ìí ê²°ê³¼ ê³ ë ¤ ë§ 50ì¬ë§ ê²°ì´ìë ê²½ì§ ë©´ì ì´ 15ì¸ê¸° ì¤ì½ìë 160ì¬ë§ ê²°ë¡ ì¦ê°íìë¤. ëí ëì ìì°ë ¥ì í¥ììí¤ê¸° ìíì¬ ìë¡ì´ ëì 기ì ê³¼ ë기구를 ê°ë°íì¬ ë¯¼ê°ì ë리 ë³´ê¸íìë¤.\n" +
"ë°ë©´ ìê³µììê° íê° ìì´ ë§ìëë¡ ìì íëì ë²ì´ë ê²ì ê·ì íìëë°, ì´ë ë¹ì ê²ì½í ìíì ê°ì¡°íë ì êµì ì¸ ê²½ì ê´ì ê°ì§ ì¬ëë¶ë¤ì´ 물íì ìëê³¼ ì¢ë¥ë¥¼ ì ë¶ê° íµì íì§ ìê³  ìì  íëì 맡겨 ëë©´ ì¬ì¹ì ë­ë¹ê° ì¡°ì¥ëë©° ëìì´ í¼ííì¬ ë¹ë¶ì ê²©ì°¨ê° ì»¤ì§ê² ëë¤ê³  ìê°íì기 ë문ì´ë¤. ëì±ì´ ë¹ì ì¬íììë ì§ìì ì¸ ì°¨ë³ì´ ìì´ ìê³µììë¤ì´ ì ëë¡ ëì°ë°ì§ 못íìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì ì¬í\n" +
"ì¡°ì ì ì¬í ì ë¶ì ìì¸ê³¼ ì²ë¯¼ì¼ë¡ 구ë¶íë ìì² ì ë를 ë²ì ííìë¤. ìì¸ì 과거ì ììíê³  ë²¼ì¬ê¸¸ì ì¤ë¥¼ ì ìë ìì ë¯¼ì¼ë¡ì ì¡°ì¸, êµ­ì­ ë±ì ì무를 ì§ëë¤. ì²ë¯¼ì ë¹(é)ìì ë¯¼ì¼ë¡ì ê°ì¸ì´ë êµ­ê°ì ììëì´ ì²ì­ì ë´ë¹íìë¤.\n" +
"ìì² ì ëë ê°ì¤ê°í ì´ì ê¹ì§ ì¡°ì  ì¬í를 ì§í±í´ ì¨ ê¸°ë³¸ì ì¸ ì ë¶ ì ëìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë ì¤ì ë¡ë ìì² ì ëì ìì¹ìë§ ìê°íì¬ ì´ìëì§ë ììë¤. ì¸ìì´ í를ìë¡ ê´ì§ì ê°ì§ ì¬ëì ì미íë ìë°ì íëì ì ë¶ì¼ë¡ êµ³ì´ì ¸ ê°ê³ , ìë° ê´ë£ë¤ì ë³´ì¢íë ì¤ì¸ë ì ë¶ì¸µì¼ë¡ ì ì°©ëì´ ê°ë¤. 그리íì¬ ì§ë°°ì¸µì¸ ìë°ê³¼ í¼ì§ë°°ì¸µì¸ ì민 ê°ì ì°¨ë³ì ëë ë°ì ì ëê° ì¼ë°íëê³  ìë°, ì¤ì¸, ì민, ì²ë¯¼ì ì ë¶ ì ëê° ì ì°¨ ì ì°©ëìë¤.\n" +
"ì¡°ì  ìëë ì격í ì ë¶ì  ì¬íìì¼ë ì ë¶ ì´ëì´ ê°ë¥íìë¤. ë²ì ì¼ë¡ ìì¸ ì´ìì´ë©´ ë구ë 과거ì ììíì¬ ê´ì§ì ì¤ë¥¼ ì ììê³ , ìë°ë ì£ë¥¼ ì§ì¼ë©´ ë¸ë¹ê° ëê±°ë ê²½ì ì ì¼ë¡ 몰ë½íì¬ ì¤ì¸ì´ë ìë¯¼ì´ ë기ë íìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì´ê¸° ì¡°ì ì 문í\n" +
"ì¡°ì  ì´ê¸°ìë ê´ëª©í  ë§í 민족ì ì´ë©´ì ì¤ì©ì ì¸ ì±ê²©ì íë¬¸ì´ ë°ë¬íì¬ ë¤ë¥¸ ìê¸°ë³´ë¤ ë¯¼ì¡± 문íì ë°ì ì´ í¬ê² ì´ë£¨ì´ì¡ë¤. ë¹ìì ì§ê¶ì¸µì 민ì ìì ê³¼ ë¶êµ­ê°ë³ì ìíì¬ ê³¼í 기ì ê³¼ ì¤ì©ì  í문ì ì¤ìíì¬, íê¸ì´ ì°½ì ëê³  ì­ì¬ì±ì ë¹ë¡¯í ê° ë¶ì¼ì ìì ë¤ì´ ì¶ë°ëë ë± ë¯¼ì¡± 문í ë°ì ì 기ë°ì´ íì±ëìë¤.\n" +
"ì±ë¦¬íì´ ì ì°©, ë°ë¬íì¬ ì  ì¬íì í° ìí¥ì ë¼ì³¤ê³ , ì¬ë¬ ê°ëì ííê° ëíë¬ë¤. 15ì¸ê¸° 문í를 주ëí ê´íí ê³ì´ì ê´ë£ë¤ê³¼ íìë¤ì ì±ë¦¬íì ì§ë ì´ëì¼ë¡ ë´ì¸ì ì¼ë ì±ë¦¬í ì´ì¸ì í문과 ì¬ìì´ë¼ë ì¢ì ì ì´ ìì¼ë©´ ë°ìë¤ì´ë ìµíµì±ì ë³´ìë¤. ë¶êµë ì ë¶ì ìíì¬ ì ë¹ëë©´ì ìì¶ëìì¼ë 민ê°ììë ì¬ì í ì ìì ëìì¼ë¡ ì리 ì¡ê³  ììë¤.\n" +
"ì²ë¬¸í, ìí ë± ê³¼í 기ì ì ìì´ìë í° ë°ì ì ì´ë£©íì¬ ìíì ìì©ëìê³ , ëì 기ì ì í¬ê² í¥ìëì´ ëì ìì°ë ¥ì ì¦ëìì¼°ë¤.\n" +
"ìì  ë¶ì¼ììë ë¯¼ì¡±ì  í¹ìì´ ëë³´ì´ë ë°ì ì ëíë´ìê³ , ì¬ëë¶ë¤ì ê²ìíê³  ìë°í ìíì´ ë°ìë 그림과 íì²´ ë° ì기 ê³µìê° ëëë¬ì¡ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê·¼ë íë기 (A.D. 1506ë ~ A.D. 1907ë)\n" +
"\n" +
"íêµ­ì¬ììë í기 ì¡°ì  ìë를 ê·¼ë íëê¸°ë¡ ë³´ê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"í기 ì¡°ì ì ì ì¹\n" +
"ìì¢ ëì ì´ë¥´ë¬ ë¶ë¹ ì ì¹ê° ë³ì§ëê³  ê·¸ íë¨ì´ ì¬íëë©´ì í¹ì  ë¶ë¹ì´ ì ê¶ì ëì íë ì¼ë¹ ì ì íì ì¶ì¸ê° ëëëìë¤. ë¶ë¹ ì ì¹ê° ë³ì§ëì ì ì¹ ì§ë¨ ê°ì ì¸ë ¥ ê· íì´ ë¬´ëì§ê³  ìê¶ ìì²´ë ë¶ìíê² ëìë¤. ì´ì ìì¡°ì ì ì¡°ë í¹ì  ë¶ë¹ì ê¶ë ¥ ì¥ìì 견ì í기 ìíì¬ íí ì ì¹ë¥¼ ì¶ì§íìë¤. íí ì ì¹ë í¹ì  ê¶ë ¥ ì§ë¨ì ìµì íê³  ìê¶ì ê°ííë ¤ë ë°©í¥ì¼ë¡ ì§íëì´ ì´ë ì ë ì±ê³¼ë¥¼ ê±°ëìì§ë§, ë¶ë¹ ì ì¹ì íë¨ì ì¼ìíì§ë 못íìë¤.\n" +
"íí ì ì¹ë¡ ê°íë ìê¶ì ìì¡° ì´íì ìë¤ì´ ì ëë¡ íì¬íì§ ëª»íë©´ì ìì¤ì ì¸ì²ì ì¤ì¬ì¼ë¡ í ìì ê°ë¬¸ì ê¶ë ¥ì´ ì§ì¤ëê³  ì ì¹ 기ê°ì´ 문ëí´ì§ë ì¸ë ì ì¹ê° ì ê°ëìë¤. ì´ë¡ì¨ ë¶ì ë¶í¨ê° ë§ì°í´ì§ê³  ì ë¶ì ë°±ì±ë¤ì ëí ìíì´ ì¬í´ì¡ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"í기 ì¡°ì ì ê²½ì \n" +
"ìì§ìëê³¼ ë³ìí¸ëì ê±°ì¹ë©´ì ëì´ ì¬íë ì¬ê°íê² íê´´ëìë¤. ìë§ì ë민ë¤ì´ ì ë ì¤ì 죽거ë í¼ëì ê°ê³  ê²½ìì§ë í©ííëìë¤. ì´ì ì ë¶ë ìì·¨ ì²´ì ë¥¼ ê°í¸íì¬ ëì´ ì¬í를 ìì ìí¤ê³  ì¬ì  기ë°ì íëíë ¤ íìë¤. ê·¸ê²ì ì ì¸ ì ë, ê³µë© ì ë, êµ°ì­ ì ëì ê°í¸ì¼ë¡ ëíë¬ë¤.\n" +
"ì민ë¤ì ìì°ë ¥ì ëì´ê¸° ìíì¬ ë기구ì ìë¹ë²ì ê°ëíë ë± ìë¡ì´ ìë ë°©ë²ì ì¶êµ¬íìê³ , ìí ì물ì ì¬ë°°íì¬ ìëì ë리려 íìë¤. ìì¸ë¤ë ìì íëì ì ê·¹ì ì¼ë¡ ì°¸ì¬íì¬ ëì본ì ê°ì§ ìì¸ë¤ë ì¶ííìë¤. ìê³µì ìì°ë íë°í´ì ¸ 민ê°ìì ìì° íëì 주ëíì¬ ê°ë¤. ì´ë¬í ê³¼ì ìì ì본 ì¶ì ì´ ì´ë£¨ì´ì§ê³ , ì§ë°©ì ìê³µì íëì´ í기를 ë ìì¼ë©°, ìì ëìê° ì¶íí기ì ì´ë¥´ë ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"í기 ì¡°ì ì ì¬í\n" +
"ì¡°ì  í기 ì¬íë ì¬í ê²½ì ì  ë³íë¡ ì¸íì¬ ì ë¶ ë³ëì´ íë°í´ì ¸ ìë° ì¤ì¬ì ì ë¶ ì²´ì ê° í¬ê² íë¤ë ¸ë¤. ë¶ë¹ ì ì¹ê° ë ì´ ê°ìë¡ ë³ì§ëì´ ê°ë©´ì ìë° ìí¸ ê°ì ì¼ì´ë ì ì¹ì  ê°ë±ì ìë°ì¸µì ë¶íì ë¶ë¬ìë¤. ì´ë¬í íìì ì¼ë¹ ì ì íê° ì ê°ëë©´ì ëì± ëëë¬ì§ê³  ê¶ë ¥ì ì¥ìí ììì ìë°ì ì ì¸í ë¤ìì ìë°ë¤ì´ 몰ë½íë ê³ê¸°ê° ëìë¤. ì´ë ê² ìë° ê³ì¸µì ëí íìì´ ë ë¡ ì¬íëì´ ê°ë©´ìë ìë°ì ìë ëì´ëê³  ì민과 ë¸ë¹ì ì«ìë ì¤ì´ëë ê²½í¥ì ë³´ìë¤. ì´ë ë¶ë¥¼ ì¶ì í ë민ë¤ì´ë í´ë°©ë ë¸ë¹ë¤ì´ ìì ë¤ì ì§ì를 ëì´ê¸° ìíì¬ ëë ì­ì ë¶ë´ì 모면í기 ìíì¬ ìë° ì ë¶ì ì¬ë ê²½ì°ê° ë§ì기 ë문ì´ë¤.\n" +
"ì´ë¬í ê¸ê²©í ì¬í ë³íì ëí ì§ê¶ì¸µì ìì¸ë ê·¹í ë³´ìì ì´ê³  ì기ìë³ì ì´ìë¤. ì´ì ê³ì¸µ ê°ì ê°ë±ì ëì± ì¬íëì´ ê°ì¼ë©°, 19ì¸ê¸°ì ë¤ì´ì íë± ì¬ìê³¼ ë´ì¸ ì ìì 주ì¥í ë¡ë§ ê°í¨ë¦­ì´ ì í¬ëë©´ì ë°±ì±ë¤ì ììì´ ì ì°¨ ëìì ¸ì[ì¶ì² íì] í¬ê³  ìì ë´ê¸°ê° ì êµ­ì ì¼ë¡ ì¼ì´ëê² ëìë¤. ì ë¶ë ë¡ë§ ê°í¨ë¦­ì´ ì ì°¨ êµì¸ê° íì¥ëì ìë° ì¤ì¬ì ì ë¶ ì§ì ë¶ì ê³¼ ìê¶ì ëí ëì ì¼ë¡ ë°ìë¤ì¬[ì¶ì² íì] ì¬êµë¡ ê·ì íê³  íìì ê°í기ì ì´ë¥´ë ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"í기 ì¡°ì ì 문í\n" +
"ìì§ìëê³¼ ë³ìí¸ë ì´í ì¬í ê° ë¶ì¼ì ë³íì í¨ê» 문íììë ìë¡ì´ 기ì´ì´ ëíë¬ë¤. ìë°ì¸µ ë¿ë§ ìëë¼ ì¤ì¸ì¸µê³¼ ì민층ë 문íì í 주ì­ì¼ë¡ ë±ì¥íë©´ì 문íì ì§ì  ë³íì í¨ê» 문íì í­ì´ íëëìë¤.\n" +
"í문ììë ì±ë¦¬íì êµì¡°íì íìí를 ë¹ííë©° ì¤ì²ì±ì ê°ì¡°í ìëªíì ë°ìë¤ìì¼ë©° 민ì ìì ê³¼ ë¶êµ­ê°ë³ì 목íë¡ íì¬ ë¹íì ì´ë©´ì ì¤ì¦ì ì¸ ë¼ë¦¬ë¡ ì¬í ê°íë¡ ì ì ìí ì¤íì´ ëëëì´ ê°í ì¶ì§ì 주ì¥í기ë íìë¤.\n" +
"ì²ë¬¸íì ìí ë± ê° ë¶ì¼ì 기ì ì  ì±ê³¼ë¤ì´ ëìê³¼ ìì ë± ì°ì ë°ì ì ì´ì§íìë¤. ìì 문물ì ì ìë ì´ë¬í ë°ì ì ê°ìííë ë° ì´ë°ì§íìë¤.\n" +
"ìì  ë¶ì¼ììë íì리, íí, ì민 ìì ë± ì민 문íê° í¬ê² ì ííìê³ , ë°±ì ë± ê³µìë ìí ê³µìê° ì¤ì¬ì´ ëìë¤. ìì° ê²½ì¹ì ì¶ì ìì¬ë¡ íë 문ì íí ê° ì§ìëì´ ë¬¸íê³¼ ìíì í° ìí¥ì ë¼ì³¤ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê·¼íëìë (A.D. 1907ë ~ )\n" +
"\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê°ê´\n" +
"ì¡°ì  ì¬íë ììì ì±ì¥íê³  ìë ê·¼ëì ì¸ ìì를 충ë¶í ë°ì ìí¤ì§ 못í ì± 19C íë° ì êµ­ì£¼ì ì´ê°ì 문í¸ë¥¼ ê°ë°©íìë¤. ì´í ì ë¶ì ê°ê³(åç), ê°ë¹(åå ), ê°ë¨ì²´(åå®é«), ê°ì¸µ(å層), ê°í(åæ´¾)ììë ê·¼ëííë ¤ë ë¸ë ¥ì íìì¼ë, ì±ê³µíì§ ëª»íìë¤.\n" +
"ê°í­ ì´í ì¡°ì ì ì구 문물ì ìì©íê³  ìë¡ì´ ê²½ì  ì ì±ì í¼ì¹ë©´ì ì주ì ì¸ ê·¼ëí를 모ìíìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë ì¼ë³¸ê³¼ ì²­ì ë¹ë¡¯í ì¸ì¸ì ê²½ì  ì¹¨ëµì´ 본격í ëë©´ì, ì´ë¬í ë¸ë ¥ì í° ì±ê³¼ë¥¼ ê±°ëì§ ëª»íë¤.\n" +
"ê°í­ ì´í, ì¬í ê°íì´ ì§íëë©´ì ì ë¶ ì ëê° íì§ëê³  íë± ììë ì ì°¨ ì±ì¥íìë¤. ë, ì¸êµ­ê³¼ì êµë¥ë¥¼ íµí´ ì¸ë 문물과 ì ë ë±ì´ ìì©ë¨ì ë°ë¼ ì íµì ì¸ ìí 모ìµìë ë§ì ë³íê° ì겨ë¬ë¤.\n" +
"ê°í­ ì´í ìì ê³¼í 기ì ì ëí ê´ì¬ì´ ëìì§ì, ì ê¸°, ì² ë, ê°ì ê·¼ë 기ì ê³¼ ìì ìì  ë± ê°ì¢ ê·¼ë ë¬¸ë¬¼ì´ ë¤ì´ìë¤. ê·¼ë ìì¤ì ì¼ììíì í¸ë¦¬íê² í´ ì£¼ìì¼ë, ì´ê°ì ì¹¨ëµ ëª©ì ì ì´ì©ë기ë íìë¤.\n" +
"ì¼ì ë ê°ìì ì¸ ì민 íµì¹ë¥¼ íµíì¬ ì°ë¦¬ 민족ì ì§ë°°íìë¤. ì´ì ë§ì ì°ë¦¬ 민족ì êµ­ë´ì¸ìì ë¬´ì¥ ë립 í¬ì, 민족 ì¤ë ¥ ìì± ì´ë, ë립 ì¸êµ íë ë±ì ë²ì¬ ì¼ì ì ì¤ê¸°ì°¨ê² ì í­íìë¤. ì´ë¬í ì°ë¦¬ 민족ì í¬ìê³¼ ì°í©êµ°ì ì¹ë¦¬ë¡ 1945ë 8ìì ê´ë³µì ë§ì´íìë¤.\n" +
"ì¼ì  ê°ì ê¸°ìë ì¼ì ì ê²½ì ì  침ëµì¼ë¡ ê²½ì  ë°ì ì´ ì곡ëì´, ì°ë¦¬ 민족ì ê³ íµì ê²ªê² ëìë¤. ê´ë³µ ì´í ì¼ì ì ì민 ì§ë°°ë¥¼ ë²ì´ëë©´ìë¶í°ë ìë¡ì´ ê²½ì  ë°ì ì ê³ê¸°ë¥¼ ë§ë ¨í  ì ììë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë ë¶ë¨ê³¼ ì ìì¼ë¡ ì¸í ê²½ì ì  ì´ë ¤ìë ëë¨í 컸ë¤.\n" +
"ì¼ì  ê°ì ê¸°ìë êµ­ê¶ì ëì°¾ì¼ë ¤ë ë립 ì´ëì´ ì¤ê¸°ì°¨ê² ì¼ì´ë¬ê³ , ë¤ë¥¸ íí¸ììë ê·¼ëí를 ìí ê°ê³(åç), ê°ë¹(åå ), ê°ë¨ì²´(åå®é«), ê°ì¸µ(å層), ê°í(åæ´¾)ììë ê·¼ëííë ¤ë ë¸ë ¥ì´ í¼ì³ì¡ë¤. ì´ë¬í ê°ì´ë° ê·¼ë ì본주ì 문ëªì´ 본격ì ì¼ë¡ ì ìëì´ ì íµ ì¬íë ì ì°¨ ê·¼ë ì¬íë¡ ë³ëª¨í´ ê°ëë°, ìë¯¼ì§ íì¤ ìëìì ê·¼ëíë ìê³¡ë  ìë°ì ììë¤.\n" +
"ì¼ì ë êµ­ê¶ì íì·¨í íì ëíì ì°¨ë³ì ì´ì¤ ì ì±ì ë°íì¼ë¡ í©êµ­ ì ë¯¼í를 ê°ë ¥íê² ì¶ì§íìë¤. í¹í, ì°ë¦¬ 민족ì ë립 ìì§ë¥¼ 꺾ì¼ë ¤ê³  ì°ë¦¬ì ì­ì¬ì 문í를 ì곡íìë¤. ì´ì ë§ì ì°ë¦¬ì ì íµê³¼ 문í를 ì§í¤ë ¤ë ìì§ìì´ ì¼ì´ë¬ë¤.\n" +
"ê·¸ë°ë°, 미âìì íë°ë ë¶í  ì ì±ê³¼ ì¢âì°ìµ ì¸ë ¥ì ê°ë±ì¼ë¡ ë¨ë¶ì´ ë¶ë¨ëì´ íµì¼ êµ­ê°ë¥¼ ì¸ì°ì§ 못íìë¤. í¹í, 6â25 ì ìì 겪ì¼ë©´ì ë¶ë¨ì ëì± ê³ ì°©íëê³  ë¨ë¶ ì¬ì´ì ìí¸ ë¶ì ì´ ê¹ì´ ê°ë¤.\n" +
"ëí민국 ì ë¶ ì립 ì´í, 민주주ìê° ì ì°©ëë ê³¼ì ìì ë§ì ìë ¨ì 겪ìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë 4â19íëªê³¼ 5â18민주í ì´ë, 6ì 민주 í­ì ë±ì¼ë¡ 민주주ìê° ì ì°¨ ë°ì íìë¤. ì´ì í¨ê», ëì  ì²´ì ê° í´ì²´ëë©´ì 민족 íµì¼ì ìí ë¸ë ¥ë ê³ì ëê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"1960ëë ì´í íêµ­ ê²½ì ë ë¹ì½ì ì¸ ì±ì¥ì ì¼êµ¬ì´ ëë¤. íêµ­ì ì´ì  ê°ëí ëì êµ­ê°ê° ìë, ì¸ê³ì ì¸ ê²½ì  ëêµ­ì¼ë¡ ë³ëª¨íê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"ê´ë³µ íì íêµ­ì ë§ì ì´ë ¤ì ìììë ê²½ì  ë°ì ì ì´ë£©íìëë°, ì´ë 커ë¤ë ì¬í ë³í를 ê°ì ¸ìë¤. ëì ì¬íìì ì°ì ì¬íë¡, ë¤ì ì ë³´í ì¬íë¡ ë°ì íë©´ì ì¬ëë¤ì ìíììê³¼ ê°ì¹ê´ë ë§ì´ ë³íìë¤.1980ëëì ì§íë 민주í ì´ëì¼ë¡ ê¶ì주ìì  ì ì¹ 문íê° ì ì°¨ 극복ëê³ , ì¬íì 민주íë 꾸ì¤í ì´ë£¨ì´ ì¡ë¤.\n" +
"ê´ë³µ ì´íìë í문 íëì´ íë°í´ì§ê³  êµì¡ì 기íê° í¬ê² íëëìë¤. ê·¸ë¬ë 미국ì ë¹ë¡¯í ì구 문íê° ê¸ìíê² ì ìëë©´ì ê°ì¹ê´ì í¼ëê³¼ ì íµë¬¸íì ìì¶ íìì ê°ì ¸ì¤ê¸°ë íìë¤.\n" +
"민주íì ëë¶ì´ 문íì ë¤ìíê° ì´ì§ëê³ , ë°ëì²´ ë± ëªëª ê³¼í ê¸°ì  ë¶ì¼ë ì¸ê³ì ì¸ ìì¤ê¹ì§ ëë¬íìë¤. íí¸, íë ì¬íì ì¤ë¦¬ì ìëª ê³¼í 기ì ì ë°ë¬ ì¬ì´ìì ë¹ì´ì§ë ê°ë±ì í´ìíë ¤ë ë¸ë ¥ë í¼ì³ì§ê³  ìë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê·¼ëìë\n" +
"ëí ì êµ­\n" +
"ì¼ì ê°ì ê¸° : ì¼ë³¸ì ì êµ­ì£¼ì ì¸ë ¥ì´ íë°ë를 ê°ì ì ì¼ë¡ ì민ì§ë¡ ì¼ì ì기ë¡ì, ë¬´ë¨ íµì¹ ì기, 문í íµì¹ ì기, ì ì ì²´ê³ ìê¸°ë¡ ëëë¤.\n" +
"ë¬´ë¨ íµì¹ ì기 : ì¡°ì ì ì구í íµì¹í기 ìí´ ì¡°ì  ì´ëë¶ë¥¼ ì¤ì¹íê³ , êµ°ë를 í견íì¬ ìë³ íëì ìµë르고 êµ­ë´ì ì í­ ì¸ë ¥ì 무ë¨ì¼ë¡ íµì¹í ì기ì´ë¤. ì¸ë¡ , ì§í, ì¶í, ê²°ì¬ì ìì ê°ì 기본ê¶ì ë°ííê³ , ë립ì´ëì 무ìë¹íê² íìíìë¤. ë, íë³ ê²½ì°°ê³¼ íë³ ë³´ì¡°ìì ì êµ­ì ë°°ì¹íê³  ì¦ê²° ì²ë¶ê¶ì ë¶ì¬íì¬ íêµ­ì¸ì ííì ì²í기ë íë¤. í ì§ì¡°ì¬ë ¹ì ê³µí¬íì¬ ìë¯¼ì§ ìíì ììíìê³ , íì¬ë ¹ì ê³µí¬íì¬ êµ­ë´ì ì본 ì¸ë ¥ì ìµìíê³  ì¼ë³¸ ì본 ì¸ë ¥ì í¸ì를 ë´ì£¼ìë¤. ì´ ì기ì íêµ­ì¸ ë¸ëìë ê·¹ìí í경과 ì ìê¸, ë¯¼ì¡±ì  ì°¨ë³ê¹ì§ ë°ì¼ë©° í¹ì¬ íìë¤.\n" +
"문í íµì¹ ì기 : 3·1 ì´ëì´ ë°ë°íì ì¼ì ë 무ë¨íµì¹ë¡ë ì¡°ì ì í¨ê³¼ì ì¼ë¡ ì§ë°°í  ì ìë¤ë íë¨íì, ì¹ì¼í를 ì¡ì±íë 문íì ì±ì í¼ì¹ë¤. ì´ ë¬¸íì ì¹ë ê°í¹í ì민 íµì¹ë¥¼ ìííë ¤ë ì ì±ì ë¶ê³¼ íë¤. íë³ ê²½ì°°ì ë¥¼ ë³´íµ ê²½ì°°ì ë¡ ì ííìì§ë§, 경찰력ì ì¤íë ¤ ì¦ê°ëìë¤. ì´ ë¤ì êµì¡ì 기í를 ë리고 ì본 ì´ì©ì 기íì ì°¸ì ê¶ì 기íë±ì ì ê³µíê² ë¤ê³  ì ì  íìì¼ë ììì ì¹ì¼ ë¶ì를 ì¡ì±íê³ , 민족 ì´ëê°ë¤ì íì íì¬ ë¯¼ì¡±ì 기ë§íê³  ë¶ì´ì íì±íìë¤.\n" +
"ì ì ì²´ê³ ì기 : 1930ëë ì¼ì ë ëë¥ì¹¨ëµì 본격ì ì¼ë¡ ììíë©´ì íë°ë를 ëë¥ ì¹¨ëµì ë³ì°¸ê¸°ì§ë¡ ì¼ìë¤. ëí, 1941ë ì¼ì ê° 미국ì ì§ì£¼ë§ì ë¶ë²ì ì¼ë¡ 기ìµíì ííì ì ìì´ ë°ë°íìë¤. ì¡°ì ììë ì¼ì ì ê°ì  ì§ì©ì¼ë¡ íêµ­ì¸ ë¸ëë ¥ì´ ì°©ì·¨ ëìê³ , íë ì§ìë³ ì ë, ì§ë³ ì ë ë±ì ì¤ìíì¬ ìë§ì ì ìì´ë¥¼ ì ìì ëìíìë¤. ë, ì ì ì¬ì±ì ì ì ëë¼ë ì´ë¦ì¼ë¡ ê°ì  ëìíì¬ êµ°ì ê³µì¥ ë±ìì í¹ì¬ìì¼°ì¼ë©°, ê·¸ ì¤ ì¼ë¶ë ì ì ì¼ë¡ ëê³  ê° ì¼ë³¸êµ° ììë¶ë¡ ì¼ë ë§íì ì ì§ë ë¤.\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"íëìë\n" +
"êµ°ì ê¸° : 미국과 ìë ¨ì êµ°ëê° ì§ì£¼íì¬ íë°ëì ì ë¶ê° ì¸ìì§ê¸° ì´ì ê¹ì§ì ì기\n" +
"ëí민국\n" +
"ì 1ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"íêµ­ì ì\n" +
"ì 2ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"ì 3ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"ì 4ê³µíêµ­ - ì ì íë²ì기. ì¢ì  ëíµë ¹ì  ì±í\n" +
"ì 5ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"1. ì ì¹ : ì ëí ì ë¶(êµ°ì¬ ì¿ ë°íì ìí ì ë¶ - 12.12 ì¬í) ì기. ëíµë ¹ ê°ì ì ê±°ì ë ì±í. ì´ ì기ìë 민주íì ëí 무ìë¹í íìì´ ìíëìì¼ë, ê´ë²ìí ëì¤ë¤ì 1987ë 6ì íëªì¼ë¡ 6ì29ì ì¸(ëíµë ¹ ì§ì ì ê±°ì ë ê³µì½)ì ì´ëì´ ë´ê¸°ë íìë¤.\n" +
"2. ê²½ì  : 1960~70ëëì ë¦ìì¨ ì¤ê³µì, 경공ì 기ë°ì 첨ë¨ê³µì ìì¤ì¼ë¡ ì´ëì´ ì¬ë¦° ì기ì´ë¤. ì´ ì기ì íêµ­ ê²½ì ë ì¸ê³ìì ì ë ìì ì ëë¡ ë¹ ë¥´ê² ì±ì¥íì¼ë©°, êµ­ë´ ë¬¼ê°ê° ê°ì¥ ìì ë ì기ìë¤.\n" +
"3. 문í : 1986ë ìì¸ ììì ê²ìì ê°ìµíìê³ , 1988ë ìì¸ ì¬ë¦¼í½ ê²ìì ì ì¹íë ë° ì±ê³µíë¤.\n" +
"ì 6ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"ë¸íì° ì ê¶\n" +
"문민ì ë¶\n" +
"국민ì ì ë¶\n" +
"ì°¸ì¬ì ë¶\n" +
"ì¡°ì ë¯¼ì£¼ì£¼ìì¸ë¯¼ê³µíêµ­\n" +
"ì¡°ì ë¯¼ì£¼ì£¼ìì¸ë¯¼ê³µíêµ­ì ì­ì¬\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"주ì\n" +
"\n" +
"â ì¼êµ­ì ì¬ - ëê²½ì êµ­ëí 1904ë í본, íë¨ê³ ê¸° - 1979ë ë³µì본\n" +
"â ëì¬ - í목 ìì¢ì¡°, ê·ìì¬í - ë¶ì ì ìì¢ìë\n" +
"â íë¨ê³ ê¸° - 1979ë ë³µì본\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ê°ì´ 보기\n" +
"\n" +
"ì¤êµ­ì ì­ì¬\n" +
"ì¼ë³¸ì ì­ì¬\n" +
"민족ì¬ê´\n" +
"ì민ì¬ê´\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"참고문í ë° ë§í¬\n" +
"\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì­ì¬ ì¼ë°\n" +
"êµ­ì¬ í¸ì°¬ ììí : íêµ­ì¬ì ê´í ì ë³´ë¥¼ ìì§, ì ë¦¬, í¸ì°¬íë êµ­ê° ì°êµ¬ 기ê´, ìì¥ ìë£, ë¼ë¬¸, ì ì ê²ì, íêµ­ì¬ ê´ë ¨ ì°êµ¬ 기ê´. ìì¥ ìë£, ë¼ë¬¸, ì ì ê²ì, íêµ­ì¬ ê´ë ¨ ìë´\n" +
"êµ­ì¬ ì ì êµê³¼ì : íì§ êµì¬ë¤ì´ ì°êµ¬.ê°ìíê³ , êµ­ì¬í¸ì°¬ììíê° ì§ìíìë¤. 2007ë ê°ì ë êµ­ì¬êµê³¼ìì ë´ì©ì´ ìì§ ë°ìëì§ ììë¤.\n" +
"íêµ­ ì­ì¬ ì ë³´ ìì¤í : íêµ­ì¬ ì°í, íêµ­ì¬ ê¸°ì´ ì¬ì  ë° ì ë¬¸ ìë£, 문í ìë£, ë¬¸ì§ ë±ì ì ê³µ\n" +
"íêµ­í ì¤ì ì°êµ¬ì : íêµ­ 문í ë° íêµ­í ì¬ë¬ ë¶íì ê´í ì°êµ¬ì êµì¡ì ìííë ì°êµ¬ 기ê´. ëì§í¸ íêµ­í ê°ë°, ì ë³´ ê´ì¥, ì ì ëìê´, ì íµ 문í ë± ìë¡\n" +
"ì­ì¬ ë¬¸ì  ì°êµ¬ì : ìì ë¯¼ê° ì°êµ¬ ë¨ì²´(ì­ì¬ì  ì¤ë¦½ì±ì´ ìì¬ë¨), ê·¼íëì¬ ìë£ì¤, ê°í물 ìë£, íêµ­ì¬ íìµ ìë£ ë± ìë¡\n" +
"[í¸ì§]\n" +
"ì¬ë¨, 기í, ì ë¶ 기ê´\n" +
"고구려 ì°êµ¬ì¬ë¨ : 고구려ì¬ë¥¼ ë¹ë¡¯í ì¤êµ­ì ì­ì¬ ì곡ì íì ì ì¼ë¡ ëìí기 ìíì¬ 2004å¹´ ì¤ë¦½ë ë²ì¸. 고구려, ë°í´ë¥¼ ë¹ë¡¯í ëììì ì­ì¬ ê´ë ¨ ìë£ì ì¡°ì¬, ìì§, ì ë¦¬, ì ë³´í ìë£ ì ê³µ. ëë¶ìì­ì¬ì¬ë¨ì¼ë¡ í¸ìëì´ ëì´ì ì ì©íì§ ìë¤.\n" +
"êµ­ê° ê¸°ë¡ ììê´ : ëí ë´ì¤, 문í ê¸°ë¡ ìí, ëíµë ¹ ê¸°ë¡ ìì ë± ë©í°ë¯¸ëì´ ì­ì¬ ìë£ ì ê³µ\n" +
"êµ­ê° ë¬¸í ì ì° ì¢í© ì ë³´ ìë¹ì¤ : êµ­ë³´, 보물, ì¬ì , ëªì¹, ì²ì° 기ë물 ì§ì  ì¢ëª©ë³, ìëë³, ì§ì­ë³, ì íë³, ì ë¬¼ ì ë³´, ê²ì ìë¹ì¤ ì ê³µ\n" +
"êµ­ê° ì§ì ì ë³´ íµí© ê²ì ìì¤í : ì ë³´ íµì ë¶ ì ê³µ, ê³¼í 기ì , ì ë³´ íµì , êµì¡, íì , 문í, ì­ì¬ ë±ì í¬ê´ì ì´ê³  ì°ëì ì¸ íì  ë°ì´í° ê²ì\n" +
"êµ­ê°ê¸°ë¡ì ì° : êµ­ê°ì  기ë¡ì ì°ì ì본과 ì문 ì´ë ìë¹ì¤ ì ê³µ\n";


var persian =
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از اسÙاÙ\n" +
"از ÙÛÚ©ÛâپدÛØ§Ø Ø¯Ø§ÙØ´ÙاÙÙ٠آزاد.\n" +
"تÙدÙÙØ§Û Ø¨Ø§Ø³ØªØ§ÙÛ Ø¢Ø³ÛØ§Û ØºØ±Ø¨Û\n" +
"بÛÙâاÙÙÙرÛÙØ Ø³ÙÙØ±Ø Ø§Ú©Ø¯Ø Ø¢Ø´ÙØ±Ø Ø¨Ø§Ø¨Ù\n" +
"ÙÛتÛâÙØ§Ø ÙÛدÛÙ\n" +
"اÛÙاÙØ Ø§ÙرارتÙØ ÙاÙÙØ§Ø ÙØ§Ø¯Ø ÙخاÙÙØ´Û\n" +
"اÙپراتÙرÛâÙا / Ø´ÙرÙا\n" +
"سÙÙر: اÙرÙÚ© â اÙر â ارÛدÙ\n" +
"Ú©ÛØ´ â Ùاگاش â ÙÛÙ¾Ùر â اکد\n" +
"باب٠â اÛسÛÙ â Ú©ÙداÙÛ\n" +
"آشÙر: آسÙØ±Ø ÙÛÙÙØ§Ø ÙÙزÛØ ÙÙرÙد\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛا٠â اÙÙرÛâÙا â Ø´ÙØ´\n" +
"ÙÙرÛâÙا â ÙÛتاÙÛ\n" +
"کاسÛâÙا â اÙرارتÙ\n" +
"گاÙØ´ÙارÛ\n" +
"شاÙا٠سÙÙر\n" +
"شاÙا٠اÛÙاÙ\n" +
"شاÙا٠آشÙر\n" +
"شاÙا٠بابÙ\n" +
"شاÙا٠Ùاد\n" +
"شاÙا٠ÙخاÙÙØ´Û\n" +
"زباÙ\n" +
"خط ÙÛØ®Û\n" +
"سÙÙØ±Û â اکدÛ\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛ â ÙÙرÛ\n" +
"اساطÛر بÛÙâاÙÙÙرÛÙ\n" +
"اÙÙÙا اÙÛØ´\n" +
"Ú¯ÛÙ Ú¯ÙØ´ â ÙردÙØ®\n" +
"ÙÛبÛرÙ\n" +
"اگر بخÙاÙÛ٠تارÛØ® اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از اسÙا٠را Ø¨Ø±Ø±Ø³Û ââÚ©ÙÛ٠باÛد از ÙردÙاÙÛ Ú©Ù Ø¯Ø± دÙرا٠ÙÙسÙÚ¯Û Ø¯Ø± ÙÙات اÛرا٠زÙØ¯Ú¯Û ÙÛââکردÙد Ùا٠ببرÛÙ. Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙÙاجرت آرÛائÛا٠ب٠ÙÙات اÛراÙØ Ø§ÙÙاÙÛ Ø¨Ø§ تÙدÙâÙØ§Û ÙتÙاÙت در اÛرا٠ÙÛâزÛستÙد ک٠آثار زÛØ§Ø¯Û Ø§Ø² Ø¢ÙÙا در ÙÙاط ÙختÙÙ ÙÙات اÛرا٠ÙاÙÙد تÙد٠جÛرÙت (در کرÙاÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ) Ù Ø´Ùر سÙخت٠در سÛستاÙØ Ù ØªÙد٠ساکÙا٠تÙد٠تپ٠سÛÙÚ© (در کاشاÙ)Ø ØªÙد٠اÙرارت٠٠ÙاÙÙا (در آذرباÛجاÙ)Ø ØªÙ¾Ù Ú¯Ûا٠ÙÙاÙÙد ٠تÙد٠کاسÛâÙا (در Ùرستا٠اÙرÙز) Ø¨Ø¬Ø§Û ÙاÙد٠است. اÙا تÙد٠اÛ٠اÙÙا٠ک٠ک٠با ÙرÙد آرÛائÛاÙØ Ø¯Ø± ÙرÙÙÚ¯ ٠تÙد٠آÙÙا ح٠شد.\n" +
"Ø¨Ø±Ø§Û Ø¨Ø±Ø±Ø³Û ØªØ§Ø±ÛØ® اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از اسÙا٠باÛد از دÛگر تÙدÙÙØ§Û Ø¨Ø§Ø³ØªØ§ÙÛ Ø¢Ø³ÛØ§Û ØºØ±Ø¨Û ÙÛز Ùا٠ببرÛÙ. Ø´Ùاخت اÙضاع ٠رابط٠اÛÙ ÙÙاط٠اÛرا٠در رابط٠با تÙدÙâÙØ§Û Ø¯Ûگر ÙظÛر سÙÙر - Ø§Ú©Ø¯Ø Ú©Ùد٠- باب٠- آشÙØ±Ø Ù ØºÛر٠ÙÛز ÙÙ٠است.\n" +
"ÙÙرست ÙÙدرجات [ÙØ®ÙÛ Ø´Ùد]\n" +
"Û± اÛÙاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"Û² ÙÙاجرت آرÛائÛا٠ب٠اÛراÙ\n" +
"Û³ ÙادÙا\n" +
"Û´ ÙخاÙÙØ´ÛاÙ\n" +
"Ûµ سÙÙÚ©ÛاÙ\n" +
"Û¶ اشکاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"Û· ساساÙÛاÙ\n" +
"Û¸ ÙÙابع\n" +
"Û¹ جستارÙØ§Û ÙابستÙ\n" +
"Û±Û° Ù¾ÛÙÙد ب٠بÛرÙÙ\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛا٠Ûا عÛÙاÙÛâÙا اÙÙاÙÛ Ø¨ÙدÙد ک٠از Ùزار٠سÙÙ Ù¾. Ù. تا Ùزار٠Ùخست Ù¾. Ù. Ø Ø¨Ø± بخش Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Û Ø§Ø² ÙÙاط٠جÙÙب ٠غرب اÛرا٠ÙرÙاÙرÙاÛÛ Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªÙد. بر حسب تÙسÛÙات جغراÙÛØ§Û Ø³ÛØ§Ø³Û Ø§ÙرÙØ²Ø Ø§ÛÙا٠باستا٠سرزÙÛÙâÙØ§Û Ø®ÙزستاÙØ ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Ø Ø§ÛÙا٠٠بخشâÙاÛÛ Ø§Ø² استاÙâÙØ§Û Ø¨ÙØ´ÙØ±Ø Ú©Ø±ÙاÙØ Ùرستا٠٠کردستا٠را شاÙÙ ÙÛâشد.\n" +
"آثار ÙØ´Ù âشد٠تÙد٠اÛÙاÙÛاÙØ Ø¯Ø± Ø´ÙØ´ ÙÙاÛاÙگر تÙد٠شÙØ±Û Ùاب٠تÙجÙÛ Ø§Ø³Øª. تÙد٠اÛÙاÙÛا٠از را٠شÙر سÙخت٠در سÛستاÙØ Ø¨Ø§ تÙد٠پÛراÙÙ٠رÙد سÙد ÙÙد ٠از را٠شÙØ´ با تÙد٠سÙÙر ÙربÙØ· ÙÛâشد٠است. اÛÙاÙÛا٠ÙخستÛÙ Ùخترعا٠خط در اÛرا٠ÙستÙد.\n" +
"ب٠Ùدرت رسÛد٠حÙÙÙت اÛÙاÙÛا٠٠Ùدرت ÛاÙت٠سÙسÙ٠عÛÙاÙÛ Ù¾Ø§Ø¯Ø´Ø§ÙÛ Ø§Ùا٠در Ø´Ùا٠دشت Ø®Ùزستا٠ÙÙÙ âترÛ٠رÙÛداد سÛØ§Ø³Û Ø§Ûرا٠در Ùزار٠سÙÙ Ù¾. Ù. است. پادشاÙÛ Ø§ÙÙا٠ÛÚ©Û Ø§Ø² دÙدÙاÙâÙØ§Û Ø§ÛÙاÙÛ Ø¨Ø§Ø³ØªØ§Ù Ø¯Ø± جÙÙب ØºØ±Ø¨Û Ø§Ûرا٠بÙد. پادشاÙÛ Ø¢Ùا٠پس از Ø´Ú©ÙÙ Ù Ùدرت Ú©ÙتÛÚ© ٠اÛÙ Ø´ÙØ´ÛÙÚ© ÙÙÚÙ٠اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ø§Ú©Ø¯Ø ÙاگÙا٠Ùر٠پاشÛØ¯Ø Ø§ÛÙ ÙرÙÙ¾Ø§Ø´Û Ù Ùرج Ù Ùرج در ÙÙØ·Ù٠در Ù¾Û ØªØ§Ø®Øª ٠تاز Ú¯ÙتÛا٠زاگرس ÙØ´Û٠رخ داد. تا Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙرÙد ÙادÙا ٠پارسÙا حدÙد ÛÙ Ùزار سا٠تارÛØ® سرزÙÛ٠اÛرا٠ÙÙحصر ب٠تارÛØ® عÛÙا٠است.\n" +
"سرزÙÛ٠اصÙÛ Ø¹ÛÙا٠در Ø´Ùا٠دشت Ø®Ùزستا٠بÙدÙ. ÙرÙÙÚ¯ ٠تÙد٠عÛÙاÙÛ Ø§Ø² شر٠رÙدخاÙ٠دجÙ٠تا Ø´Ùر سÙخت٠زاب٠٠از ارتÙاعات زاگرس ÙرÙØ²Û ØªØ§ بÙØ´Ùر اثر گذار بÙد٠است. عÛÙاÙÛا٠Ù٠ساÙÛ ÙÚادÙد Ù Ù٠آرÛاÛÛ Ø¢Ùا٠ساÙÙا٠اÙÙÙ٠دشت Ø®Ùزستا٠ÙستÙد.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"ÙÙاجرت آرÛائÛا٠ب٠اÛراÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"آرÛائÛاÙØ ÙردÙاÙÛ Ø§Ø² ÙÚاد ÙÙد ٠ارÙپاÛÛ Ø¨ÙدÙد ک٠در Ø´Ùا٠ÙÙات اÛرا٠ÙÛââزÛستÙد. دÙÛ٠اصÙÛ ÙÙاجرت Ø¢ÙÙا Ùشخص ÙÛست اÙا ب٠Ùظر ÙÛââرسد دشÙار شد٠شراÛØ· آب Ù ÙÙاÛÛ Ù Ú©ÙبÙد Úراگا٠ÙØ§Ø Ø§Ø² دÙاÛ٠آ٠باشد. ÙÙاجرت آرÛائÛا٠ب٠ÙÙات اÛرا٠ÛÚ© ÙÙاجرت تدرÛØ¬Û Ø¨Ùد٠است ک٠در پاÛا٠دÙرا٠ÙÙسÙÚ¯Û (7000 سا٠پÛØ´ از ÙÛÙاد) آغاز شد ٠تا 4000 Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙÛÙاد اداÙ٠داشت٠است.\n" +
"ÙخستÛ٠آرÛاÛÛâÙاÛÛ Ú©Ù Ø¨Ù Ø§Ûرا٠آÙدÙد شاÙ٠کاسÛâÙا (کاÙتÙÙا ٠کاشÛâÙا)Ø ÙÙÙÙبÛا٠٠گÙتÛا٠بÙدÙد. کاâسÛâÙا تÙدÙÛ Ø±Ø§ پاÛÙ Ú¯Ø°Ø§Ø±Û Ú©Ø±Ø¯Ùد ک٠اÙرÙز٠Ùا آ٠را بÙا٠تÙد٠تپ٠سÛÙÚ© ÙÛââØ´ÙاسÛÙ. ÙÙÙÙبÛا٠٠گÙتÛا٠ÙÛز در زاگرس ÙØ±Ú©Ø²Û Ø§ÙاÙت گزÛدÙد ک٠بعدÙا با Ø¢Ùد٠ÙادÙا Ø¨Ø®Ø´Û Ø§Ø² Ø¢ÙÙا شدÙد. در حدÙد 5000 سا٠پÛØ´ از ÙÛÙØ§Ø¯Ø ÙÙاجرت بزرگ آرÛائÛا٠ب٠اÛرا٠آغاز شد ٠س٠گرÙ٠بزرگ آرÛاÛÛ Ø¨Ù Ø§Ûرا٠آÙدÙد Ù Ùر ÛÚ© در ÙسÙØªÛ Ø§Ø² اÛرا٠سکÙÛ Ú¯Ø²ÛدÙد: ÙادÙا در Ø´ÙØ§Ù ØºØ±Ø¨Û Ø§ÛراÙØ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø³âÙا در ÙسÙت جÙÙØ¨Û Ù Ù¾Ø§Ø±ØªâÙا در حدÙد خراسا٠اÙرÙزÛ.\n" +
"شاخÙâÙØ§Û ÙÙÙ٠اÛراÙÛ Ø¯Ø± ÙÛÙÙâÙØ§Û ÙزارÙâÛ Ø§ÙÙ Ùب٠از ÙسÛØ­ عبارت بÙدÙâاÙد از: باخترÛا٠در باخترÛÙ (تاجÛکستا٠٠شÙاÙشر٠اÙغاÙستاÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø³Ú©Ø§ÙØ§Û ÙÙÙâکار در سگائÛÙ (شرÙ٠ازبکستاÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø³ÙغدÛا٠در سغدÛÙ (جÙÙب ازبکستا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø®ÙارزÙÛا٠در Ø®ÙارزÙÛÙ (Ø´Ùا٠ازبکستا٠٠شÙاÙشر٠ترکÙÙستاÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø ÙرغزÛا٠در ÙرغÙÙ Ûا Ùر٠(جÙÙبغرب ازبکستا٠٠شر٠ترکÙستا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø¯Ø§Ù٠در Ùرکز ترکÙستا٠کÙÙÙÛØ ÙÙرÙÛÙÛا٠در ÙÙرÙÛÙÙÙ Ûا Ùرات (غرب اÙغاÙستا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø¯ÙرÙÙÚ¯ÙÛا٠در درÙÚ¯ÛاÙÙ Ûا سÛستا٠(غرب اÙغاÙستا٠کÙÙÙÛ Ù Ø´Ø±Ù Ø§Ûرا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø ÙکائÛا٠در ÙکائÛÙ Ûا ÙÙÚ©âÚ©Ùرا٠(بÙÙÚستاÙ٠اÛرا٠٠پاکستا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø ÙÛرکاÙÛا٠در ÙÛرکاÙÛا Ûا گرگا٠(جÙÙبغرب٠ترکÙÙستا٠کÙÙÙÛ Ù Ø´Ùا٠اÛراÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ù¾ÙرتÙÙÙÙâئÛا٠در پارتÛÙ (Ø´ÙاÙشر٠اÛرا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø ØªÙ¾ÙرÛا٠در تپÙرÛÙ Ûا تپÙرستا٠(Ú¯ÛÙا٠٠ÙازÙدرا٠کÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø¢Ø±ÛازÙÙتا در اسپداÙ٠در Ùرکز٠اÛراÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛØ Ø³Ú©Ø§ÙØ§Û ØªÛزخÙد در اÙاÙÛÙ Ûا ارا٠(آذرباÛجا٠ÙستÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ø¢ØªØ±Ù¾Ø§ØªÛگا٠در آذرباÛجا٠اÛراÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛØ ÙاداÛÙ٠در Ùاد (غرب اÛراÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛ)Ø Ú©ÙردÙØ® در کردستاÙÙ (ÚÙارپارÙâشدÙâÛ) Ú©ÙÙÙÛØ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø³ÙÛ Ø¯Ø± پارس ٠کرÙاÙÙ Ú©ÙÙÙÛØ Ø§Ùشا٠در Ùرستا٠٠شÙا٠خÙزستا٠کÙÙÙÛ. ÙباÛÙÛ Ú©Ù Ø¯Ø± تارÛØ® با ÙاÙÙØ§Û ÙاÙÙاÙØ§Ø ÙÙÙÙبÛاÙâÙØ§Ø Ú¯ÙتÛاÙâÙØ§Ø Ù Ú©Ø§Ø³ÛâÙا Ø´ÙاساÙد٠شدÙâاÙد ٠در ÙÙØ§Ø·Ù ØºØ±Ø¨Û Ø§Ûرا٠ساک٠بÙدÙâاÙد تÛرÙâÙØ§Ø¦Û Ø§Ø² شاخÙâÙØ§Û ÙÙ٠اÛراÙÛ Ø¨ÙدÙâاÙد ک٠زÙاÙÛ Ø¨Ø±Ø§Û Ø®Ùدشا٠اتحادÛÙâÙØ§Û ÙباÛÙÛ Ù Ø§ÙÛرÙØ´Û٠داشتÙâاÙØ¯Ø Ù Ø³Ù¾Ø³ در پادشاÙÛ Ùاد ادغا٠شدÙâاÙد.\n" +
"ÙادÙا در اÛرا٠ÙزدÛÚ© 150 سا٠(708- 550 Ù.Ù) ÙخاÙÙØ´ÛâÙا Ú©ÙÛ Ø¨ÛØ´ از دÙÛست سا٠(550-330 Ù.Ù) اسکÙدر ٠سÙÙÚ©ÛâÙا در حدÙد صد سا٠(330 -250 Ù.Ù) اشکاÙÛا٠ÙرÛب پاÙصد سا٠(250 Ù.Ù â 226 Ù) ٠ساساÙÛا٠ÙرÛب ÚÙار صد Ù Ø³Û Ø³Ø§Ù (226-651 Ù) ÙرÙاÙرÙاÛÛ Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªÙد.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"ÙادÙا\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"Ùاد در 675 Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙÛÙاد\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"Ùاد در 600 Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙÛÙاد\n" +
"ÙادÙا ÙÙÙÛ Ø§ÛراÙÛ Ø¨ÙدÙد از تبار آرÛاÛÛ Ú©Ù Ø¯Ø± بخش ØºØ±Ø¨Û ÙÙات اÛرا٠ساک٠شدÙد. سرزÙÛÙ ÙادÙا دربرگÛرÙد٠بخش ØºØ±Ø¨Û ÙÙات اÛرا٠بÙد. سرزÙÛ٠آذرباÛجا٠در Ø´ÙØ§Ù ØºØ±Ø¨Û ÙÙات اÛرا٠را با Ùا٠Ùاد Ú©ÙÚÚ© ٠بÙÛÙÙ ÙاحÛ٠زاگرس را با Ùا٠Ùاد بزرگ ÙÛâØ´ÙاختÙد. پاÛتخت Ùاد ÙÚ¯ÙتاÙ٠است Ø¢ÙÙا تÙاÙستÙد در اÙاÛÙ Ùر٠ÙÙت٠Ùب٠از ÙÛÙاد اÙÙÛ٠دÙÙت اÛراÙÛ Ø±Ø§ تأسÛس Ú©ÙÙد\n" +
"پس از Ø­ÙÙات شدÛد Ù Ø®ÙÙÛ٠آشÙرÛا٠ب٠ÙÙاط٠ÙادÙØ´ÛÙØ Ú¯Ø±ÙÙÛ Ø§Ø² بزرگا٠Ùاد گرد رÙØ¨Ø±Û Ø¨Ù Ùا٠دÛاک٠جÙع شدÙد.\n" +
"از پادشاÙا٠بزرگ اÛ٠دÙدÙا٠ÙÙÙخشتر٠بÙد ک٠با دÙÙت باب٠Ùتحد شد ٠سراÙجا٠اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ø¢Ø´Ùر را ÙÙÙرض کرد ٠پاÛÙâÙØ§Û ÙخستÛ٠شاÙÙشاÙÛ Ø¢Ø±ÛاÛÛâتبارا٠در اÛرا٠را بÙÛاد ÙÙاد.\n" +
"دÙÙت Ùاد در ÛµÛµÛ° Ù¾ÛØ´ از ÙÛÙاد ب٠دست Ú©ÙرÙØ´ ÙÙÙرض شد ٠سÙØ·Ùت اÛرا٠ب٠پارسÛâÙا ÙÙتÙ٠گشت. در زÙا٠دارÛÙØ´ Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Ø Ø§ÙپراتÙØ±Û ÙخاÙÙØ´Û Ø¨Ù ÙÙتÙØ§Û Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Û Ø®Ùد رسÛد: از ÙÙد تا درÛØ§Û Ø¢Ø¯Ø±ÛاتÛÚ© ٠از درÛØ§Û Ø¹Ùا٠تا Ú©ÙÙâÙØ§Û ÙÙÙاز.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"ÙخاÙÙØ´ÛاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"شاÙÙشاÙÛ Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯ ÙخاÙÙØ´Û Ø¯Ø± 330 Ù.Ù.\n" +
"ÙخاÙÙØ´Ûا٠Ùخست پادشاÙا٠بÙÙÛ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø³ ٠سپس اÙشا٠بÙدÙد ÙÙÛ Ø¨Ø§ Ø´Ú©Ø³ØªÛ Ú©Ù Ú©ÙرÙØ´ بزرگ بزرگ بر اÛشتÙÙÛÚ¯Ù ÙاپسÛ٠پادشا٠Ùاد Ùارد ساخت ٠سپس Ùتح ÙÛدÛ٠٠باب٠پادشاÙÛ ÙخاÙÙØ´Ûا٠تبدÛ٠ب٠شاÙÙشاÙÛ Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Û Ø´Ø¯. از اÛ٠ر٠کÙرÙØ´ بزرگ را بÙÛادگذار شاÙÙشاÙÛ ÙخاÙÙØ´Û ÙÛâداÙÙد.\n" +
"در ÛµÛ²Û¹ Ù¾.Ù Ú©ÙرÙØ´ بزرگ پاÛ٠گذار دÙÙت ÙخاÙÙØ´Û Ø¯Ø± جÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û Ø´Ùا٠شرÙÛ Ø§Ûرا٠با سکاÙØ§Ø Ú©Ø´ØªÙ Ø´Ø¯. ÙØ´Ú©Ø±Ú©Ø´Û Ú©ÙبÙجÛ٠جاÙØ´Û٠ا٠ب٠Ùصر آخرÛ٠رÙ٠کشاÙرزا٠٠Ùرد٠ÙغÙÙب را Ú©Ø´Ûد ٠زÙÛÙ٠را Ø¨Ø±Ø§Û Ø´ÙØ±Ø´Û ÙÙگاÙÛ ÙراÙ٠کرد. دارÛÙØ´ بزرگ در کتÛبÙ٠بÛستÙÙ ÙÛââÚ¯ÙÛد: \" بعد از رÙت٠ا٠(Ú©ÙبÙجÛÙ) ب٠Ùصر Ùرد٠از ا٠برگشتÙد...\"\n" +
"Ø´ÙرشâÙا بزرگ شد Ù Ø­ØªÛ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø³ زادگا٠شاÙا٠ÙخاÙÙØ´Û Ø±Ø§ ÙÛز در برگرÙت. دارÛÙØ´ در کتÛب٠بÛستÙÙ Ø´ÙÙâØ§Û Ø§Ø² اÛÙ ÙÛاÙâÙا را در بÙد دÙÙ ÚÙÛÙ ÙÙÙ ÙÛâÚ©Ùد: \" زÙاÙÛ Ú©Ù Ù٠در باب٠بÙد٠اÛ٠اÛاÙات از Ù٠برگشتÙد: Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø³Ø Ø®ÙزستاÙØ ÙØ§Ø¯Ø Ø¢Ø´ÙØ±Ø ÙØµØ±Ø Ù¾Ø§Ø±Øª خراسا٠(ÙرÙØ Ú¯ÙØ´) اÙغاÙستا٠(ÙکائÛÙ).\" دارÛÙØ´ از 9 ÙÙر Ùا٠522 تا 19 اسÙÙد 520 Ù.٠ب٠سرکÙØ¨Û Ø§Û٠جÙبشâÙا ÙشغÙ٠بÙد.\n" +
"جÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û Ø§Ûرا٠٠ÛÙÙا٠در زÙا٠دارÛÙØ´ آغاز شد. دÙÙت ÙخاÙÙØ´Û Ø³Ø± اÙجا٠در 330 Ù. ٠ب٠دست اسکÙدر ÙÙدÙÙÛ ÙÙÙرض گشت ٠اÛرا٠ب٠دست سپاÙÛا٠ا٠اÙتاد.\n" +
"اسکÙدر سÙسÙÙ ÙخاÙÙØ´Ûا٠را ÙابÙد Ú©Ø±Ø¯Ø Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ را کشت ÙÙÛ Ø¯Ø± حرکت Ø®Ùد ب٠شر٠ÙÙ٠جا ب٠ÙÙاÙÙتâÙØ§Û Ø³Ø®Øª برخÙØ±Ø¯Ø Ø§Ø² جÙÙ٠سغد ٠باکترÛا ÛÚ©Û Ø§Ø² سردارا٠جÙÚ¯Û Ø§Ù Ø¨Ùا٠سپتاÙا٠327- 329 Ù. ٠در راس جÙبش ÙÙگاÙÛ Ùرد٠بÛØ´ از د٠سا٠عÙÛÙ ÙÙØ§Ø¬Ù Ø®Ø§Ø±Ø¬Û Ùبارز٠دÙاÙراÙ٠کرد. در اÛÙ ÙاحÛÙ Ùکرر Ùرد٠عÙÛ٠ساتراپÙØ§Û Ø§Ø³Ú©Ùدر ÙÛا٠کردÙد. گرÚ٠سراÙجا٠ÙÛرÙÙØ§Û ÙجÙز Ù ÙرزÛد٠اسکÙدر اÛ٠جÙبشâÙا را سرکÙب کردÙد ÙÙÛ Ø§Ø² اÛ٠تارÛØ® اسکÙدر ÙاÚار رÙØ´ خشÙÙت Ø¢ÙÛز Ø®Ùد را ب٠ÙرÙØ´ Ù Ø®ÙشخÙÛÛ Ø¨Ø¯Ù Ú©Ø±Ø¯.\n" +
"\n" +
"اÛراÙ\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛراÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از آرÛاÛÛâÙا	\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از اسÙاÙ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"Ùاد\n" +
"ÙخاÙÙØ´ÛاÙ\n" +
"سÙÙÚ©ÛاÙ\n" +
"اشکاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"ساساÙÛاÙ\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠پس از اسÙاÙ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"Ø®ÙÙØ§Û Ø±Ø§Ø´Ø¯ÛÙ\n" +
"اÙÙÛاÙ\n" +
"عباسÛاÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠در دÙرا٠حکÙÙتâÙØ§Û ÙØ­ÙÛ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"طاÙرÛاÙ\n" +
"صÙارÛاÙ\n" +
"ساÙاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"آ٠زÛار\n" +
"آ٠بÙÛÙ\n" +
"غزÙÙÛاÙ\n" +
"سÙجÙÙÛاÙ\n" +
"Ø®ÙارزÙشاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠در دÙر٠ÙغÙÙ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"اÛÙخاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠در دÙرا٠ÙÙÙÚ©âاÙØ·ÙاÛÙÛ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"سربداراÙ\n" +
"تÛÙÙرÛاÙ\n" +
"ÙرعشÛاÙ\n" +
"Ú©ÛائÛاÙ\n" +
"ÙراÙÙÛÙÙÙÙ\n" +
"Ø¢ÙâÙÙÛÙÙÙÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠در دÙرا٠حکÙÙتâÙØ§Û ÙÙÛ	\n" +
"    | دÙدÙاÙâÙا Ù Ø­Ú©ÙÙتâÙا\n" +
"صÙÙÛ\n" +
"اÙشارÛاÙ\n" +
"زÙد\n" +
"Ùاجار\n" +
"Ù¾ÙÙÙÛ\n" +
"جÙÙÙØ±Û Ø§Ø³ÙاÙÛ\n" +
"ÙÙضÙعÛ\n" +
"تارÛØ® Ùعاصر اÛراÙ\n" +
"تارÛØ® ÙذاÙب اÛراÙ\n" +
"ÙÙرپرستÛ\n" +
"زرتشتÛ\n" +
"تسÙÙ\n" +
"تصÙÙ\n" +
"تشÛع\n" +
"تارÛØ® اسÙاÙ\n" +
"تارÛØ® زبا٠٠ادبÛات اÛراÙ\n" +
"جغراÙÛØ§Û Ø§ÛراÙ\n" +
"استاÙâÙØ§Û ØªØ§Ø±ÛØ®Û Ø§ÛراÙ\n" +
"اÙتصاد اÛراÙ\n" +
"گاÙØ´Ùار تارÛØ® اÛراÙ\n" +
"پرÙÚ٠اÛراÙ\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"سÙÙÚ©ÛاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"اÛرا٠در زÙا٠سÙÙÚ©Ûا٠(330 - 150 Ù.Ù.)\n" +
"پس از Ùرگ اسکÙدر (323 Ù. Ù) ÙتÙحاتش بÛ٠سرداراÙØ´ تÙسÛ٠شد ٠بÛشتر ÙتصرÙات آسÛØ§Ø¦Û Ø§Ù Ú©Ù Ø§Ûرا٠Ùست٠آ٠بÙد ب٠سÙÙÚ©Ùس اÙ٠رسÛد. ب٠اÛ٠ترتÛب اÛرا٠تحت Ø­Ú©ÙÙت سÙÙÚ©Ûا٠(330 - 150 Ù.Ù.) در Ø¢Ùد. پس از ÙØ¯ØªÛ Ù¾Ø§Ø±ØªâÙا ÙÙÙØ° Ø®Ùد را گسترش دادÙد ٠سراÙجا٠تÙاÙستÙد سÙÙÚ©Ûا٠را ÙابÙد ٠اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ø§Ø´Ú©Ø§ÙÛ Ø±Ø§ اÛجاد Ú©ÙÙد.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"اشکاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ø§Ø´Ú©Ø§ÙÛ 250 Ù.Ù. 224 Ù.\n" +
"اشکاÙÛا٠(250 Ù. Ù 224 Ù) ک٠از تÛر٠اÛراÙÛ Ù¾Ø±ÙÛ Ù Ø´Ø§Ø®ÙâØ§Û Ø§Ø² Ø·ÙاÛÙ Ùابست٠ب٠اتحادÛ٠داÙ٠از عشاÛر سکاÙØ§Û Ø­Ø¯Ùد باختر بÙدÙØ¯Ø Ø§Ø² اÛاÙت پارت Ú©Ù ÙشتÙ٠بر خراسا٠ÙعÙÛ Ø¨Ùد برخاستÙد. Ùا٠سرزÙÛ٠پارت در کتÛبÙâÙØ§Û Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛÙØ´ پرثÙ٠آÙد٠است Ú©Ù Ø¨Ù Ø²Ø¨Ø§Ù Ù¾Ø§Ø±ØªÛ Ù¾ÙÙÙÙ ÙÛâØ´Ùد. ÚÙ٠پارتÛا٠از اÙ٠اÛاÙت Ù¾ÙÙ٠بÙدÙØ¯Ø Ø§Ø² اÛ٠جÙت در Ùسبت ب٠آ٠سرزÙÛ٠اÛشا٠را Ù¾ÙÙÙÛ ÙÛز ÙÛââتÙا٠خÙاÙد. اÛاÙت پارتÛÙا از Ùغرب ب٠داÙغا٠٠سÙاح٠جÙÙب شرÙÛ Ø¯Ø±ÛØ§Û Ø®Ø²Ø± ٠از Ø´Ùا٠ب٠ترکستا٠٠از Ùشر٠ب٠رÙد تج٠٠از جÙÙب ب٠کÙÛر ÙÙÚ© ٠سÛستا٠ÙحدÙد ÙÛââشد. ÙباÛÙ Ù¾Ø§Ø±ØªÛ Ø¯Ø± آغاز با ÙÙ٠داÙ٠ک٠در Ùشر٠درÛØ§Û Ø®Ø²Ø± ÙÛââزÛستÙد در ÛÚ© جا سکÙÙت داشتÙد ٠سپس از Ø¢Ùا٠جدا شد٠در ÙاحÛ٠خراسا٠Ùسک٠گزÛدÙد.\n" +
"اÛ٠اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ø¯Ø± دÙر٠اÙتدارش از رÙد Ùرات تا ÙÙدÙÚ©Ø´ ٠از Ú©ÙÙâÙØ§Û ÙÙÙاز تا Ø®ÙÛج Ùارس تÙسع٠ÛاÙت. در عÙد اشکاÙÛ Ø¬ÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û Ø§Ûرا٠٠رÙ٠آغاز شد. سÙسÙ٠اشکاÙÛ Ø¯Ø± اثر اختÙاÙات داخÙÛ Ù Ø¬ÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û Ø®Ø§Ø±Ø¬Û Ø¨Ù ØªØ¯Ø±Ûج ضعÛ٠شد تا سر اÙجا٠ب٠دست اردشÛر اÙ٠ساساÙÛ ÙÙÙرض گردÛد.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"ساساÙÛاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"شاÙÙشاÙÛ Ø³Ø§Ø³Ø§ÙÛ Ø¯Ø± ساÙÙØ§Û Û²Û²Û´ تا Û¶ÛµÛ± Ù.\n" +
"ساساÙÛا٠خاÙدا٠شاÙÙشاÙÛ Ø§ÛراÙÛ Ø¯Ø± ساÙÙØ§Û Û²Û²Û´ تا Û¶ÛµÛ± ÙÛÙØ§Ø¯Û Ø¨ÙدÙد. شاÙÙشاÙا٠ساساÙÛ Ú©Ù Ø§ØµÙÛتشا٠از استا٠پارس بÙد بر بخش Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Û Ø§Ø² غرب ÙارÙ٠آسÛا ÚÛØ±Ú¯Û ÛاÙتÙد. پاÛتخت ساساÙÛا٠شÙر تÛسÙÙ٠در ÙزدÛÚ©Û Ø¨ØºØ¯Ø§Ø¯ در عرا٠اÙرÙØ²Û Ø¨Ùد.\n" +
"سÙسÙ٠اشکاÙÛ Ø¨Ù Ø¯Ø³Øª اردشÛر اÙ٠ساساÙÛ ÙÙÙرض گردÛد. ÙÛ Ø³ÙسÙ٠ساساÙÛا٠را بÙا ÙÙاد ک٠تا 652 ÙÛÙØ§Ø¯Û Ø¯Ø± اÛرا٠اداÙÙ ÛاÙت. دÙÙت ساساÙÛ Ø­Ú©ÙÙØªÛ ÙÙÛ Ù ÙØªÚ©Û Ø¨Ù Ø¯Û٠٠تÙد٠اÛراÙÛ Ø¨Ùد Ù Ùدرت بسÛار زÛØ§Ø¯Û Ú©Ø³Ø¨ کرد. در اÛ٠دÙر٠ÙÛز جÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û Ø§Ûرا٠٠رÙ٠اداÙÙ ÛاÙت.\n" +
"\n" +
"در ÙÙÙ٠دÙرا٠ÙاÙÛ[1] (216 - 276 ÙÛÙادÛ) ب٠تبÙÛغ ÙØ°Ùب Ø®Ùد پرداخت. ÙاÙÛ Ù¾Ø³ از ÙساÙرت ب٠ÙÙد ٠آشÙØ§Ø¦Û Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ°Ùب بÙØ¯Ø§Ø¦Û Ø³Ûست٠جÙا٠ÙØ°ÙØ¨Û ÙاÙÙÛ Ø®Ùد را ک٠اÙتÙØ§Ø·Û Ø§Ø² ÙØ°Ùب زردشتÛØ Ø¨ÙØ¯Ø§Ø¦Û Ù ÙسÛØ­Û Ù Ø§Ø³Ø·Ùر٠بÙد با دÙت تÙظÛ٠کرد ٠در کتاب \"شاÙÙ¾ÙرگاÙ\" اصÙ٠آÙâÙا را بÛا٠٠ÙÙÚ¯Ø§Ù ØªØ§Ø¬Ú¯Ø°Ø§Ø±Û Ø´Ø§Ù¾ÙراÙ٠ب٠شا٠ÙدÛ٠کرد. ÙاÙÛ Ø§ØµÙ٠اخÙاÙÛ Ø®Ùد را بر پاÛÙ ÙÙسÙÛ ÙØ«ÙÙÛت: رÙØ´ÙØ§Ø¦Û Ù ØªØ§Ø±ÛÚ©Û Ú©Ù Ø§Ø²ÙÛ Ù Ø§Ø¨Ø¯Û ÙستÙد استÙار ÙÙÙد. در ÙاÙع اÛ٠اصÙÙ) Ø®ÙØ¯Ø¯Ø§Ø±Û Ø§Ø² Ùت٠ÙÙس Ø­ØªÛ Ø¯Ø± ÙÙرد Ø­ÛÙاÙØ§ØªØ ÙØ®Ùرد٠ÙÛØ Ø¯ÙØ±Û Ø§Ø² ز٠٠جÙع Ùکرد٠Ùا٠(ÙاکÙØ´ در ÙÙاب٠زÙØ¯Ú¯Û Ù¾Ø± تجÙ٠٠پر از Ùذت طبÙات حاک٠٠عکس اÙعÙÙ ÙÙÙÛ Ø¯Ø± برابر بحرا٠اجتÙØ§Ø¹Û Ù¾Ø§Ûا٠حکÙÙت اشکاÙÛ Ù Ø¢ØºØ§Ø² Ø­Ú©ÙÙت ساساÙÛ Ø§Ø³Øª. شاپÙر Ù ÙرÙØ²Ø¯Ø Ùشر ÚÙÛÙ ÙØ°ÙØ¨Û Ø±Ø§ تجÙÛز کردÙØ¯Ø Ø²Ûرا با ÙجÙد ÙخاÙÙت آ٠با Ø´ÙÙت Ù¾Ø±Ø³ØªÛ Ù ØºØ§Ø±ØªÚ¯Ø±Û Ù Ø³Ùد جÙØ¦Û Ø·Ø¨Ùات حاکÙØ Ø§Ø² جاÙØ¨Û Ùرد٠را ب٠را٠\"ÙعÙÙÛت\" Ù \"آشتÛâØ®ÙاÙÛ\" سÙÙ ÙÛââداد ٠از جاÙب دÛگر از Ùدرت ÙØ°Ùب زردشت ÙÛââکاست.\n" +
"جÙبش ÙعÙÙÛ ÙاÙÛ Ø¨Ù Ø³Ø±Ø¹Øª در جÙا٠آ٠رÙز گسترش ÛاÙت ٠تبدÛ٠ب٠ÙÛرÙØ¦Û Ø´Ø¯ ک٠با ÙجÙد جÙب٠ÙÙÙÛ Ø¢Ù Ø¨Ø§ ÙدÙâÙØ§Û Ø´Ø§Ùا٠٠Ùجبا Ù Ù¾ÛشرÙت جاÙع٠آ٠رÙØ²Û ÙÙÙ ÙÙÛâداد. Ù¾ÛØ´ÙاÛØ§Ù Ø²Ø±Ø¯ØªØ´ØªÛ Ù Ø¹ÛسÙÛ Ú©Ù Ø¨Ø§ Ù٠دائÙا در Ùبرد بÙدÙØ¯Ø Ùتحد شدÙد ٠در دÙرا٠شاÙÛ Ø¨Ùرا٠اÙ٠ک٠شاÙÛ ØªÙ Ø¢Ø³Ø§ Ù Ø´ÙÙت پرست بÙد در جرÛا٠ÙحاکÙ٠ا٠را ÙØ­Ú©ÙÙ Ù ÙÙتÙÙ ÙÙÙدÙد ( 276 ÙÛÙادÛ). از آ٠پس ÙاÙÛ Ú©Ø´Û Ø¢ØºØ§Ø² شد Ù Ùغا٠Ùرد٠بسÛØ§Ø±Û Ø±Ø§ ب٠Ùا٠زÙدک(زÙدÛÙ) کشتÙد. ÙاÙÙÛا٠درد ٠جاÙب Ø´Ø±Ù Ù ØºØ±Ø¨Ø Ø¯Ø± آسÛØ§Û ÙÛاÙ٠تا سرحد ÚÛ٠٠در غرب تا رÙ٠پراکÙد٠شدÙد.\n" +
"\n" +
"اÙپراتÙØ±Û Ù¾ÙÙاÙر ساساÙÛ Ú©Ù Ø§Ø² رÙد سÙد تا درÛØ§Û Ø³Ø±Ø® Ùسعت Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªØ Ø¯Ø± اثر ÙØ´Ú©Ùات Ø®Ø§Ø±Ø¬Û Ù Ø¯Ø§Ø®ÙÛ Ø¶Ø¹Û٠شد. آخرÛ٠پادشا٠اÛ٠سÙسÙÙ Ûزدگرد سÙ٠بÙد. در دÙر٠ا٠ÙسÙÙاÙا٠عرب ب٠اÛرا٠حÙÙ٠کردÙد ٠اÛراÙÛا٠را در جÙÚ¯âÙØ§Û ÙادسÛÙØ ÙدائÙØ Ø¬ÙÙÙاء Ù ÙÙاÙÙد شکست دادÙد ٠بدÛ٠ترتÛب دÙÙت ساساÙÛ Ø§Ø² ÙÛا٠رÙت.\n" +
"در پاÛا٠سد٠پÙج٠٠آغاز Ùر٠شش٠ÙÛÙØ§Ø¯Û Ø¬Ùبش Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯Û Ø¬Ø§Ùع٠اÛرا٠را تکا٠داد ک٠ب٠صÙرت ÙÛاÙÛ ÙاÙØ¹Û Ø³Û Ø³Ø§Ù ( 24-494 Ù.) دÙا٠آÙرد ٠تأثÛر شگرÙÛ Ø¯Ø± تکاÙ٠جاÙع٠آ٠رÙزاÛرا٠بخشÛد.\n" +
"در ÚÙÛ٠اÙØ¶Ø§Ø¹Û Ùزدک[2] پسر باÙدادا٠ب٠تبÙÛغ ÙØ°Ùب Ø®Ùد Ú©Ù Ú¯ÙÛÙد ÙÙسسش زردشت Ø®Ùرک بابÙÙدس بÙدÙØ Ù¾Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø®Øª. عÙاÛد Ùزدک بر د٠گاÙÚ¯Û ÙاÙÙÛ Ø§Ø³ØªÙار است:\n" +
"رÙØ´ÙØ§Ø¦Û Ø¯Ø§Ùا ٠تارÛÚ©Û ÙاداÙØ Ø¨Ù Ø¹Ø¨Ø§Ø±Øª دÛگر ÙÛÚ©Û Ø¨Ø§ عÙÙ Ù Ø¨Ø¯Û Ø¬Ø§ÙÙØ Ø§Û٠د٠ÙÛر٠با Ù٠در ÙبردÙد Ù ÚÙ٠رÙØ´ÙØ§Ø¦Û Ø¯Ø§Ùاست سراÙجا٠پÛرÙز Ø®ÙاÙد شد.\n" +
"اساس تعÙÛÙات اجتÙØ§Ø¹Û Ùزدک د٠ÚÛز است: ÛÚ©Û Ø¨Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø±Û Ù Ø¯ÛÚ¯Ø±Û Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ú¯Ø±Û.\n" +
"Ùرد٠بسÛØ§Ø±Û Ø¨Ù Ø³Ø±Ø¹Øª Ù¾Ûر٠ÙØ°Ùب Ùزدک شدÙد. جÙبش ÙØ²Ø¯Ú©Û Ø¨Ø§ Ùت٠ا٠٠پÛرÙاÙØ´ ب٠طرز ÙحشÛاÙÙâØ§Û Ø³Ø±Ú©Ùب Ø´Ø¯Ø Ø§Ùا اÙکار ا٠اثر Ø®Ùد را Ø­ØªÛ Ø¯Ø± ÙÛاÙâÙا ٠جÙبشâÙØ§Û Ùرد٠اÛرا٠در دÙرا٠اسÙاÙØ Ø¨Ø§ÙÛ Ú¯Ø°Ø§Ø´Øª.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"ÙÙابع\n" +
"\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠- دکتر Ø®ÙجÛ\n" +
"تارÛØ® اجتÙØ§Ø¹Û Ø§ÛراÙ. ÙØ±ØªØ¶Û Ø±Ø§ÙÙدÛ. ( جÙد Û± ) 1354\n" +
"تارÛØ® Ùاد. اÛÚ¯Ùر ÙÛخائÛÙÙÙÛÚ Ø¯ÛاکÙÙÙÙ. ترجÙ٠کرÛ٠کشاÙØ±Ø²Ø ØªÙراÙ: Ùشر اÙÛرکبÛر.\n" +
"تارÙØ® اÙرا٠باستاÙ. دÙاÙÙÙÙÙØ ÙÙخائÙÙ ÙÙخائÙÙÙÙÙÚ. رÙØ­Û Ø§Ø±Ø¨Ø§Ø¨. اÙتشارات عÙÙÛ Ù ÙرÙÙÚ¯ÛØ Úاپ دÙÙ 1380\n" +
"سÙ٠اÛراÙÛا٠در Ù¾ÛداÛØ´ ٠آÙرÛÙØ´ خط در جÙا٠Øدکتر رک٠اÙدÛÙ ÙÙاÛÙÙÙØ±Ø®Ø Ø§Ùتشارات اساطÛر.\n" +
"Ú©ÙرÙÙØ Ø¬Ø±Ø¬. اÛرا٠در سپÛد٠د٠تارÛØ®. ترجÙ٠حس٠اÙÙØ´Ù. تÙراÙØ Ùرکز Ùشر داÙشگاÙÛØ 1379\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠از زÙا٠باستا٠تا اÙرÙØ²Ø Ø§. Ø¢. گراÙتÙسÙÛ - Ù. Ø¢. داÙداÙاÛÙØ ÙترجÙØ ÙÛخسر٠ÙشاÙرزÛØ Ùاشر: ÙرÙارÙد 1385\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛرا٠از عÙد باستا٠تا Ùر٠18Ø Ù¾ÛÚ¯ÙÙÙÙسکاÛØ§Ø ØªØ±Ø¬Ù٠کرÛ٠کشاÙØ±Ø²Ø ØªÙراÙØ 1353.\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"جستارÙØ§Û ÙابستÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"Ùاد\n" +
"کاسÛ\n" +
"اÛÙاÙÛاÙ\n" +
"تپ٠ÙÚ¯ÙتاÙÙ\n" +
"تارÛØ® اÛراÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠پÛØ´ از آرÛاÛÛâÙا\n" +
"تÙدÙÙØ§Û Ø¨Ø§Ø³ØªØ§ÙÛ Ø¢Ø³ÛØ§Û ØºØ±Ø¨Û\n" +
"[ÙÛراÛØ´]\n" +
"Ù¾ÛÙÙد ب٠بÛرÙÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"اÛرا٠Ùب٠از آرÛاÙا\n" +
"اÙرا٠پÙØ´ از آرÙاÛÛâÙا\n" +
"تÙدÙÙØ§Û Ùب٠از آرÛاÛÛ Ø§ÛراÙ\n" +
"اÛرا٠ازدÛدگا٠باستاÙØ´ÙاسÛ\n" +
"سÙÚ¯âÙبشتÙâÛ Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛÙØ´ بزرگ در بÛستÙÙ\n" +
"Ø´ÛÙ٠آسÛØ§Ø¦Û ØªÙÙÛد در اÛراÙ\n" +
"ÙÛØ§Û Ø§Ø³Ø§Ø·ÛØ±Û Ø§ÛراÙÛاÙ\n" +
"ÙÛاÙâÙØ§Û Ø§ÛراÙÛا٠در Ø·Ù٠تارÛØ®\n" +
"Ø®ÙاصÙ٠تارÛØ® اÛراÙ\n" +
"Ø´ÙØ±Ø Ø´ÙØ±Ø³Ø§Ø²Û Ù Ø´ÙرÙØ´ÙÙÛ Ø¯Ø± اÙرا٠پÙØ´ از اسÙاÙ\n" +
"\n" +
"[3]\n" +
"[4]\n" +
"[5]\n" +
"[6]\n" +
"[7]\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
" اÛÙ ÙÙشتار Ø®Ùرد است. با گسترش آ٠ب٠ÙÛÚ©ÛâپدÛا Ú©ÙÚ© Ú©ÙÛد.\n" +
"\n" +
"اÛÙ ÙÙاÙÙ ÙÛازÙÙد ÙÛÚ©ÛâØ³Ø§Ø²Û Ø§Ø³Øª. ÙØ·Ùا٠با تÙج٠ب٠راÙÙÙØ§Û ÙÛراÛØ´ Ù Ø´ÛÙÙâÙاÙ٠آ٠را تغÛÛر دÙÛد. در پاÛاÙØ Ù¾Ø³ از ÙÛÚ©ÛâØ³Ø§Ø²Û Ø§Û٠اÙÚ¯ÙÛ Ù¾ÛاÙÛ Ø±Ø§ بردارÛد.\n";


var source =
("/*\n" +
"  This is a version (aka dlmalloc) of malloc/free/realloc written by\n" +
"  Doug Lea and released to the public domain.  Use, modify, and\n" +
"  redistribute this code without permission or acknowledgement in any\n" +
"  way you wish.  Send questions, comments, complaints, performance\n" +
"  data, etc to dl@cs.oswego.edu\n" +
"\n" +
"* VERSION 2.7.2 Sat Aug 17 09:07:30 2002  Doug Lea  (dl at gee)\n" +
"\n" +
"   Note: There may be an updated version of this malloc obtainable at\n" +
"           ftp://gee.cs.oswego.edu/pub/misc/malloc.c\n" +
"         Check before installing!\n" +
"\n" +
"* Quickstart\n" +
"\n" +
"  This library is all in one file to simplify the most common usage:\n" +
"  ftp it, compile it (-O), and link it into another program. All\n" +
"  of the compile-time options default to reasonable values for use on\n" +
"  most unix platforms. Compile -DWIN32 for reasonable defaults on windows.\n" +
"  You might later want to step through various compile-time and dynamic\n" +
"  tuning options.\n" +
"\n" +
"  For convenience, an include file for code using this malloc is at:\n" +
"     ftp://gee.cs.oswego.edu/pub/misc/malloc-2.7.1.h\n" +
"  You don't really need this .h file unless you call functions not\n" +
"  defined in your system include files.  The .h file contains only the\n" +
"  excerpts from this file needed for using this malloc on ANSI C/C++\n" +
"  systems, so long as you haven't changed compile-time options about\n" +
"  naming and tuning parameters.  If you do, then you can create your\n" +
"  own malloc.h that does include all settings by cutting at the point\n" +
"  indicated below.\n" +
"\n" +
"* Why use this malloc?\n" +
"\n" +
"  This is not the fastest, most space-conserving, most portable, or\n" +
"  most tunable malloc ever written. However it is among the fastest\n" +
"  while also being among the most space-conserving, portable and tunable.\n" +
"  Consistent balance across these factors results in a good general-purpose\n" +
"  allocator for malloc-intensive programs.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The main properties of the algorithms are:\n" +
"  * For large (>= 512 bytes) requests, it is a pure best-fit allocator,\n" +
"    with ties normally decided via FIFO (i.e. least recently used).\n" +
"  * For small (<= 64 bytes by default) requests, it is a caching\n" +
"    allocator, that maintains pools of quickly recycled chunks.\n" +
"  * In between, and for combinations of large and small requests, it does\n" +
"    the best it can trying to meet both goals at once.\n" +
"  * For very large requests (>= 128KB by default), it relies on system\n" +
"    memory mapping facilities, if supported.\n" +
"\n" +
"  For a longer but slightly out of date high-level description, see\n" +
"     http://gee.cs.oswego.edu/dl/html/malloc.html\n" +
"\n" +
"  You may already by default be using a C library containing a malloc\n" +
"  that is  based on some version of this malloc (for example in\n" +
"  linux). You might still want to use the one in this file in order to\n" +
"  customize settings or to avoid overheads associated with library\n" +
"  versions.\n" +
"\n" +
"* Contents, described in more detail in \"description of public routines\" below.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Standard (ANSI/SVID/...)  functions:\n" +
"    malloc(size_t n);\n" +
"    calloc(size_t n_elements, size_t element_size);\n" +
"    free(Void_t* p);\n" +
"    realloc(Void_t* p, size_t n);\n" +
"    memalign(size_t alignment, size_t n);\n" +
"    valloc(size_t n);\n" +
"    mallinfo()\n" +
"    mallopt(int parameter_number, int parameter_value)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Additional functions:\n" +
"    independent_calloc(size_t n_elements, size_t size, Void_t* chunks[]);\n" +
"    independent_comalloc(size_t n_elements, size_t sizes[], Void_t* chunks[]);\n" +
"    pvalloc(size_t n);\n" +
"    cfree(Void_t* p);\n" +
"    malloc_trim(size_t pad);\n" +
"    malloc_usable_size(Void_t* p);\n" +
"    malloc_stats();\n" +
"\n" +
"* Vital statistics:\n" +
"\n" +
"  Supported pointer representation:       4 or 8 bytes\n" +
"  Supported size_t  representation:       4 or 8 bytes\n" +
"       Note that size_t is allowed to be 4 bytes even if pointers are 8.\n" +
"       You can adjust this by defining INTERNAL_SIZE_T\n" +
"\n" +
"  Alignment:                              2 * sizeof(size_t) (default)\n" +
"       (i.e., 8 byte alignment with 4byte size_t). This suffices for\n" +
"       nearly all current machines and C compilers. However, you can\n" +
"       define MALLOC_ALIGNMENT to be wider than this if necessary.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Minimum overhead per allocated chunk:   4 or 8 bytes\n" +
"       Each malloced chunk has a hidden word of overhead holding size\n" +
"       and status information.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Minimum allocated size: 4-byte ptrs:  16 bytes    (including 4 overhead)\n" +
"                          8-byte ptrs:  24/32 bytes (including, 4/8 overhead)\n" +
"\n" +
"       When a chunk is freed, 12 (for 4byte ptrs) or 20 (for 8 byte\n" +
"       ptrs but 4 byte size) or 24 (for 8/8) additional bytes are\n" +
"       needed; 4 (8) for a trailing size field and 8 (16) bytes for\n" +
"       free list pointers. Thus, the minimum allocatable size is\n" +
"       16/24/32 bytes.\n" +
"\n" +
"       Even a request for zero bytes (i.e., malloc(0)) returns a\n" +
"       pointer to something of the minimum allocatable size.\n" +
"\n" +
"       The maximum overhead wastage (i.e., number of extra bytes\n" +
"       allocated than were requested in malloc) is less than or equal\n" +
"       to the minimum size, except for requests >= mmap_threshold that\n" +
"       are serviced via mmap(), where the worst case wastage is 2 *\n" +
"       sizeof(size_t) bytes plus the remainder from a system page (the\n" +
"       minimal mmap unit); typically 4096 or 8192 bytes.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Maximum allocated size:  4-byte size_t: 2^32 minus about two pages\n" +
"                           8-byte size_t: 2^64 minus about two pages\n" +
"\n" +
"       It is assumed that (possibly signed) size_t values suffice to\n" +
"       represent chunk sizes. `Possibly signed' is due to the fact\n" +
"       that `size_t' may be defined on a system as either a signed or\n" +
"       an unsigned type. The ISO C standard says that it must be\n" +
"       unsigned, but a few systems are known not to adhere to this.\n" +
"       Additionally, even when size_t is unsigned, sbrk (which is by\n" +
"       default used to obtain memory from system) accepts signed\n" +
"       arguments, and may not be able to handle size_t-wide arguments\n" +
"       with negative sign bit.  Generally, values that would\n" +
"       appear as negative after accounting for overhead and alignment\n" +
"       are supported only via mmap(), which does not have this\n" +
"       limitation.\n" +
"\n" +
"       Requests for sizes outside the allowed range will perform an optional\n" +
"       failure action and then return null. (Requests may also\n" +
"       also fail because a system is out of memory.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Thread-safety: NOT thread-safe unless USE_MALLOC_LOCK defined\n" +
"\n" +
"       When USE_MALLOC_LOCK is defined, wrappers are created to\n" +
"       surround every public call with either a pthread mutex or\n" +
"       a win32 spinlock (depending on WIN32). This is not\n" +
"       especially fast, and can be a major bottleneck.\n" +
"       It is designed only to provide minimal protection\n" +
"       in concurrent environments, and to provide a basis for\n" +
"       extensions.  If you are using malloc in a concurrent program,\n" +
"       you would be far better off obtaining ptmalloc, which is\n" +
"       derived from a version of this malloc, and is well-tuned for\n" +
"       concurrent programs. (See http://www.malloc.de) Note that\n" +
"       even when USE_MALLOC_LOCK is defined, you can can guarantee\n" +
"       full thread-safety only if no threads acquire memory through\n" +
"       direct calls to MORECORE or other system-level allocators.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Compliance: I believe it is compliant with the 1997 Single Unix Specification\n" +
"       (See http://www.opennc.org). Also SVID/XPG, ANSI C, and probably\n" +
"       others as well.\n" +
"\n" +
"* Synopsis of compile-time options:\n" +
"\n" +
"    People have reported using previous versions of this malloc on all\n" +
"    versions of Unix, sometimes by tweaking some of the defines\n" +
"    below. It has been tested most extensively on Solaris and\n" +
"    Linux. It is also reported to work on WIN32 platforms.\n" +
"    People also report using it in stand-alone embedded systems.\n" +
"\n" +
"    The implementation is in straight, hand-tuned ANSI C.  It is not\n" +
"    at all modular. (Sorry!)  It uses a lot of macros.  To be at all\n" +
"    usable, this code should be compiled using an optimizing compiler\n" +
"    (for example gcc -O3) that can simplify expressions and control\n" +
"    paths. (FAQ: some macros import variables as arguments rather than\n" +
"    declare locals because people reported that some debuggers\n" +
"    otherwise get confused.)\n" +
"\n" +
"    OPTION                     DEFAULT VALUE\n" +
"\n" +
"    Compilation Environment options:\n" +
"\n" +
"    __STD_C                    derived from C compiler defines\n" +
"    WIN32                      NOT defined\n" +
"    HAVE_MEMCPY                defined\n" +
"    USE_MEMCPY                 1 if HAVE_MEMCPY is defined\n" +
"    HAVE_MMAP                  defined as 1\n" +
"    MMAP_CLEARS                1\n" +
"    HAVE_MREMAP                0 unless linux defined\n" +
"    malloc_getpagesize         derived from system #includes, or 4096 if not\n" +
"    HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H  NOT defined\n" +
"    LACKS_UNISTD_H             NOT defined unless WIN32\n" +
"    LACKS_SYS_PARAM_H          NOT defined unless WIN32\n" +
"    LACKS_SYS_MMAN_H           NOT defined unless WIN32\n" +
"    LACKS_FCNTL_H              NOT defined\n" +
"\n" +
"    Changing default word sizes:\n" +
"\n" +
"    INTERNAL_SIZE_T            size_t\n" +
"    MALLOC_ALIGNMENT           2 * sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T)\n" +
"    PTR_UINT                   unsigned long\n" +
"    CHUNK_SIZE_T               unsigned long\n" +
"\n" +
"    Configuration and functionality options:\n" +
"\n" +
"    USE_DL_PREFIX              NOT defined\n" +
"    USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS NOT defined\n" +
"    USE_MALLOC_LOCK            NOT defined\n" +
"    DEBUG                      NOT defined\n" +
"    REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES   NOT defined\n" +
"    MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION      errno = ENOMEM, if __STD_C defined, else no-op\n" +
"    TRIM_FASTBINS              0\n" +
"    FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE      512\n" +
"\n" +
"    Options for customizing MORECORE:\n" +
"\n" +
"    MORECORE                   sbrk\n" +
"    MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS        1\n" +
"    MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM       NOT defined\n" +
"    MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE      (1024 * 1024)\n" +
"\n" +
"    Tuning options that are also dynamically changeable via mallopt:\n" +
"\n" +
"    DEFAULT_MXFAST             64\n" +
"    DEFAULT_TRIM_THRESHOLD     256 * 1024\n" +
"    DEFAULT_TOP_PAD            0\n" +
"    DEFAULT_MMAP_THRESHOLD     256 * 1024\n" +
"    DEFAULT_MMAP_MAX           65536\n" +
"\n" +
"    There are several other #defined constants and macros that you\n" +
"    probably don't want to touch unless you are extending or adapting malloc.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS 0\n" +
"#define MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM 1\n" +
"#define MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION abort()\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"namespace khtml {\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef NDEBUG\n" +
"\n" +
"// In debugging builds, use the system malloc for its debugging features.\n" +
"\n" +
"void *main_thread_malloc(size_t n)\n" +
"{\n" +
"    assert(pthread_main_np());\n" +
"    return malloc(n);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"void *main_thread_calloc(size_t n_elements, size_t element_size)\n" +
"{\n" +
"    assert(pthread_main_np());\n" +
"    return calloc(n_elements, element_size);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"void main_thread_free(void* p)\n" +
"{\n" +
"    // it's ok to main_thread_free on a non-main thread - the actual\n" +
"    // free will be scheduled on the main thread in that case.\n" +
"    free(p);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"void *main_thread_realloc(void* p, size_t n)\n" +
"{\n" +
"    assert(pthread_main_np());\n" +
"    return realloc(p, n);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  WIN32 sets up defaults for MS environment and compilers.\n" +
"  Otherwise defaults are for unix.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define WIN32 */\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"\n" +
"#define WIN32_LEAN_AND_MEAN\n" +
"#include <windows.h>\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Win32 doesn't supply or need the following headers */\n" +
"#define LACKS_UNISTD_H\n" +
"#define LACKS_SYS_PARAM_H\n" +
"#define LACKS_SYS_MMAN_H\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Use the supplied emulation of sbrk */\n" +
"#define MORECORE sbrk\n" +
"#define MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS 1\n" +
"#define MORECORE_FAILURE    ((void*)(-1))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Use the supplied emulation of mmap and munmap */\n" +
"#define HAVE_MMAP 1\n" +
"#define MUNMAP_FAILURE  (-1)\n" +
"#define MMAP_CLEARS 1\n" +
"\n" +
"/* These values don't really matter in windows mmap emulation */\n" +
"#define MAP_PRIVATE 1\n" +
"#define MAP_ANONYMOUS 2\n" +
"#define PROT_READ 1\n" +
"#define PROT_WRITE 2\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Emulation functions defined at the end of this file */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* If USE_MALLOC_LOCK, use supplied critical-section-based lock functions */\n" +
"#ifdef USE_MALLOC_LOCK\n") +
("static int slwait(int *sl);\n" +
"static int slrelease(int *sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"static long getpagesize(void);\n" +
"static long getregionsize(void);\n" +
"static void *sbrk(long size);\n" +
"static void *mmap(void *ptr, long size, long prot, long type, long handle, long arg);\n" +
"static long munmap(void *ptr, long size);\n" +
"\n" +
"static void vminfo (unsigned long*free, unsigned long*reserved, unsigned long*committed);\n" +
"static int cpuinfo (int whole, unsigned long*kernel, unsigned long*user);\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  __STD_C should be nonzero if using ANSI-standard C compiler, a C++\n" +
"  compiler, or a C compiler sufficiently close to ANSI to get away\n" +
"  with it.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef __STD_C\n" +
"#if defined(__STDC__) || defined(_cplusplus)\n" +
"#define __STD_C     1\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define __STD_C     0\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif /*__STD_C*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Void_t* is the pointer type that malloc should say it returns\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef Void_t\n" +
"#if (__STD_C || defined(WIN32))\n" +
"#define Void_t      void\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define Void_t      char\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif /*Void_t*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"#include <stddef.h>   /* for size_t */\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#include <sys/types.h>\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* define LACKS_UNISTD_H if your system does not have a <unistd.h>. */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define  LACKS_UNISTD_H */\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef LACKS_UNISTD_H\n" +
"#include <unistd.h>\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* define LACKS_SYS_PARAM_H if your system does not have a <sys/param.h>. */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define  LACKS_SYS_PARAM_H */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#include <stdio.h>    /* needed for malloc_stats */\n" +
"#include <errno.h>    /* needed for optional MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Debugging:\n" +
"\n" +
"  Because freed chunks may be overwritten with bookkeeping fields, this\n" +
"  malloc will often die when freed memory is overwritten by user\n" +
"  programs.  This can be very effective (albeit in an annoying way)\n" +
"  in helping track down dangling pointers.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If you compile with -DDEBUG, a number of assertion checks are\n" +
"  enabled that will catch more memory errors. You probably won't be\n" +
"  able to make much sense of the actual assertion errors, but they\n" +
"  should help you locate incorrectly overwritten memory.  The\n" +
"  checking is fairly extensive, and will slow down execution\n" +
"  noticeably. Calling malloc_stats or mallinfo with DEBUG set will\n" +
"  attempt to check every non-mmapped allocated and free chunk in the\n" +
"  course of computing the summmaries. (By nature, mmapped regions\n" +
"  cannot be checked very much automatically.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Setting DEBUG may also be helpful if you are trying to modify\n" +
"  this code. The assertions in the check routines spell out in more\n" +
"  detail the assumptions and invariants underlying the algorithms.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Setting DEBUG does NOT provide an automated mechanism for checking\n" +
"  that all accesses to malloced memory stay within their\n" +
"  bounds. However, there are several add-ons and adaptations of this\n" +
"  or other mallocs available that do this.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  The unsigned integer type used for comparing any two chunk sizes.\n" +
"  This should be at least as wide as size_t, but should not be signed.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef CHUNK_SIZE_T\n" +
"#define CHUNK_SIZE_T unsigned long\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  The unsigned integer type used to hold addresses when they are are\n" +
"  manipulated as integers. Except that it is not defined on all\n" +
"  systems, intptr_t would suffice.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#ifndef PTR_UINT\n" +
"#define PTR_UINT unsigned long\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T is the word-size used for internal bookkeeping\n" +
"  of chunk sizes.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The default version is the same as size_t.\n" +
"\n" +
"  While not strictly necessary, it is best to define this as an\n" +
"  unsigned type, even if size_t is a signed type. This may avoid some\n" +
"  artificial size limitations on some systems.\n" +
"\n" +
"  On a 64-bit machine, you may be able to reduce malloc overhead by\n" +
"  defining INTERNAL_SIZE_T to be a 32 bit `unsigned int' at the\n" +
"  expense of not being able to handle more than 2^32 of malloced\n" +
"  space. If this limitation is acceptable, you are encouraged to set\n" +
"  this unless you are on a platform requiring 16byte alignments. In\n" +
"  this case the alignment requirements turn out to negate any\n" +
"  potential advantages of decreasing size_t word size.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Implementors: Beware of the possible combinations of:\n" +
"     - INTERNAL_SIZE_T might be signed or unsigned, might be 32 or 64 bits,\n" +
"       and might be the same width as int or as long\n" +
"     - size_t might have different width and signedness as INTERNAL_SIZE_T\n" +
"     - int and long might be 32 or 64 bits, and might be the same width\n" +
"  To deal with this, most comparisons and difference computations\n" +
"  among INTERNAL_SIZE_Ts should cast them to CHUNK_SIZE_T, being\n" +
"  aware of the fact that casting an unsigned int to a wider long does\n" +
"  not sign-extend. (This also makes checking for negative numbers\n" +
"  awkward.) Some of these casts result in harmless compiler warnings\n" +
"  on some systems.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef INTERNAL_SIZE_T\n" +
"#define INTERNAL_SIZE_T size_t\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The corresponding word size */\n" +
"#define SIZE_SZ                (sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T))\n" +
"\n" +
"\n") +
("\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MALLOC_ALIGNMENT is the minimum alignment for malloc'ed chunks.\n" +
"  It must be a power of two at least 2 * SIZE_SZ, even on machines\n" +
"  for which smaller alignments would suffice. It may be defined as\n" +
"  larger than this though. Note however that code and data structures\n" +
"  are optimized for the case of 8-byte alignment.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MALLOC_ALIGNMENT\n" +
"#define MALLOC_ALIGNMENT       (2 * SIZE_SZ)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The corresponding bit mask value */\n" +
"#define MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK      (MALLOC_ALIGNMENT - 1)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES should be set if a call to\n" +
"  realloc with zero bytes should be the same as a call to free.\n" +
"  Some people think it should. Otherwise, since this malloc\n" +
"  returns a unique pointer for malloc(0), so does realloc(p, 0).\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/*   #define REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  TRIM_FASTBINS controls whether free() of a very small chunk can\n" +
"  immediately lead to trimming. Setting to true (1) can reduce memory\n" +
"  footprint, but will almost always slow down programs that use a lot\n" +
"  of small chunks.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Define this only if you are willing to give up some speed to more\n" +
"  aggressively reduce system-level memory footprint when releasing\n" +
"  memory in programs that use many small chunks.  You can get\n" +
"  essentially the same effect by setting MXFAST to 0, but this can\n" +
"  lead to even greater slowdowns in programs using many small chunks.\n" +
"  TRIM_FASTBINS is an in-between compile-time option, that disables\n" +
"  only those chunks bordering topmost memory from being placed in\n" +
"  fastbins.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef TRIM_FASTBINS\n" +
"#define TRIM_FASTBINS  0\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  USE_DL_PREFIX will prefix all public routines with the string 'dl'.\n" +
"  This is necessary when you only want to use this malloc in one part\n" +
"  of a program, using your regular system malloc elsewhere.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define USE_DL_PREFIX\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  USE_MALLOC_LOCK causes wrapper functions to surround each\n" +
"  callable routine with pthread mutex lock/unlock.\n" +
"\n" +
"  USE_MALLOC_LOCK forces USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS to be defined\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define USE_MALLOC_LOCK */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  If USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS is defined, every public routine is\n" +
"  actually a wrapper function that first calls MALLOC_PREACTION, then\n" +
"  calls the internal routine, and follows it with\n" +
"  MALLOC_POSTACTION. This is needed for locking, but you can also use\n" +
"  this, without USE_MALLOC_LOCK, for purposes of interception,\n" +
"  instrumentation, etc. It is a sad fact that using wrappers often\n" +
"  noticeably degrades performance of malloc-intensive programs.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef USE_MALLOC_LOCK\n" +
"#define USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS\n" +
"#else\n" +
"/* #define USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS */\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Two-phase name translation.\n" +
"   All of the actual routines are given mangled names.\n" +
"   When wrappers are used, they become the public callable versions.\n" +
"   When DL_PREFIX is used, the callable names are prefixed.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS\n" +
"#define cALLOc      public_cALLOc\n" +
"#define fREe        public_fREe\n" +
"#define cFREe       public_cFREe\n" +
"#define mALLOc      public_mALLOc\n" +
"#define mEMALIGn    public_mEMALIGn\n" +
"#define rEALLOc     public_rEALLOc\n" +
"#define vALLOc      public_vALLOc\n" +
"#define pVALLOc     public_pVALLOc\n" +
"#define mALLINFo    public_mALLINFo\n" +
"#define mALLOPt     public_mALLOPt\n" +
"#define mTRIm       public_mTRIm\n" +
"#define mSTATs      public_mSTATs\n" +
"#define mUSABLe     public_mUSABLe\n" +
"#define iCALLOc     public_iCALLOc\n" +
"#define iCOMALLOc   public_iCOMALLOc\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef USE_DL_PREFIX\n" +
"#define public_cALLOc    main_thread_calloc\n" +
"#define public_fREe      main_thread_free\n" +
"#define public_cFREe     main_thread_cfree\n" +
"#define public_mALLOc    main_thread_malloc\n" +
"#define public_mEMALIGn  main_thread_memalign\n" +
"#define public_rEALLOc   main_thread_realloc\n" +
"#define public_vALLOc    main_thread_valloc\n" +
"#define public_pVALLOc   main_thread_pvalloc\n" +
"#define public_mALLINFo  main_thread_mallinfo\n" +
"#define public_mALLOPt   main_thread_mallopt\n" +
"#define public_mTRIm     main_thread_malloc_trim\n" +
"#define public_mSTATs    main_thread_malloc_stats\n" +
"#define public_mUSABLe   main_thread_malloc_usable_size\n" +
"#define public_iCALLOc   main_thread_independent_calloc\n" +
"#define public_iCOMALLOc main_thread_independent_comalloc\n" +
"#else /* USE_DL_PREFIX */\n" +
"#define public_cALLOc    calloc\n" +
"#define public_fREe      free\n" +
"#define public_cFREe     cfree\n" +
"#define public_mALLOc    malloc\n" +
"#define public_mEMALIGn  memalign\n" +
"#define public_rEALLOc   realloc\n" +
"#define public_vALLOc    valloc\n" +
"#define public_pVALLOc   pvalloc\n" +
"#define public_mALLINFo  mallinfo\n" +
"#define public_mALLOPt   mallopt\n" +
"#define public_mTRIm     malloc_trim\n" +
"#define public_mSTATs    malloc_stats\n" +
"#define public_mUSABLe   malloc_usable_size\n" +
"#define public_iCALLOc   independent_calloc\n" +
"#define public_iCOMALLOc independent_comalloc\n" +
"#endif /* USE_DL_PREFIX */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  HAVE_MEMCPY should be defined if you are not otherwise using\n" +
"  ANSI STD C, but still have memcpy and memset in your C library\n" +
"  and want to use them in calloc and realloc. Otherwise simple\n" +
"  macro versions are defined below.\n" +
"\n") +
("  USE_MEMCPY should be defined as 1 if you actually want to\n" +
"  have memset and memcpy called. People report that the macro\n" +
"  versions are faster than libc versions on some systems.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Even if USE_MEMCPY is set to 1, loops to copy/clear small chunks\n" +
"  (of <= 36 bytes) are manually unrolled in realloc and calloc.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define HAVE_MEMCPY\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef USE_MEMCPY\n" +
"#ifdef HAVE_MEMCPY\n" +
"#define USE_MEMCPY 1\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define USE_MEMCPY 0\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if (__STD_C || defined(HAVE_MEMCPY))\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"/* On Win32 memset and memcpy are already declared in windows.h */\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"extern \"C\" {\n" +
"void* memset(void*, int, size_t);\n" +
"void* memcpy(void*, const void*, size_t);\n" +
"}\n" +
"#else\n" +
"extern \"C\" {\n" +
"Void_t* memset();\n" +
"Void_t* memcpy();\n" +
"}\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION is the action to take before \"return 0\" when\n" +
"  malloc fails to be able to return memory, either because memory is\n" +
"  exhausted or because of illegal arguments.\n" +
"\n" +
"  By default, sets errno if running on STD_C platform, else does nothing.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"#define MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION \\n" +
"   errno = ENOMEM;\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MORECORE-related declarations. By default, rely on sbrk\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef LACKS_UNISTD_H\n" +
"#if !defined(__FreeBSD__) && !defined(__OpenBSD__) && !defined(__NetBSD__)\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"extern Void_t*     sbrk(ptrdiff_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"extern Void_t*     sbrk();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MORECORE is the name of the routine to call to obtain more memory\n" +
"  from the system.  See below for general guidance on writing\n" +
"  alternative MORECORE functions, as well as a version for WIN32 and a\n" +
"  sample version for pre-OSX macos.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE\n" +
"#define MORECORE sbrk\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MORECORE_FAILURE is the value returned upon failure of MORECORE\n" +
"  as well as mmap. Since it cannot be an otherwise valid memory address,\n" +
"  and must reflect values of standard sys calls, you probably ought not\n" +
"  try to redefine it.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_FAILURE\n" +
"#define MORECORE_FAILURE (-1)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  If MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS is true, take advantage of fact that\n" +
"  consecutive calls to MORECORE with positive arguments always return\n" +
"  contiguous increasing addresses.  This is true of unix sbrk.  Even\n" +
"  if not defined, when regions happen to be contiguous, malloc will\n" +
"  permit allocations spanning regions obtained from different\n" +
"  calls. But defining this when applicable enables some stronger\n" +
"  consistency checks and space efficiencies.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS\n" +
"#define MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS 1\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Define MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM if your version of MORECORE\n" +
"  cannot release space back to the system when given negative\n" +
"  arguments. This is generally necessary only if you are using\n" +
"  a hand-crafted MORECORE function that cannot handle negative arguments.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Define HAVE_MMAP as true to optionally make malloc() use mmap() to\n" +
"  allocate very large blocks.  These will be returned to the\n" +
"  operating system immediately after a free(). Also, if mmap\n" +
"  is available, it is used as a backup strategy in cases where\n" +
"  MORECORE fails to provide space from system.\n" +
"\n" +
"  This malloc is best tuned to work with mmap for large requests.\n" +
"  If you do not have mmap, operations involving very large chunks (1MB\n" +
"  or so) may be slower than you'd like.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"#define HAVE_MMAP 1\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Standard unix mmap using /dev/zero clears memory so calloc doesn't\n" +
"   need to.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MMAP_CLEARS\n" +
"#define MMAP_CLEARS 1\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#else /* no mmap */\n" +
"#ifndef MMAP_CLEARS\n" +
"#define MMAP_CLEARS 0\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n") +
("   MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE is the minimum mmap size argument to use if\n" +
"   sbrk fails, and mmap is used as a backup (which is done only if\n" +
"   HAVE_MMAP).  The value must be a multiple of page size.  This\n" +
"   backup strategy generally applies only when systems have \"holes\" in\n" +
"   address space, so sbrk cannot perform contiguous expansion, but\n" +
"   there is still space available on system.  On systems for which\n" +
"   this is known to be useful (i.e. most linux kernels), this occurs\n" +
"   only when programs allocate huge amounts of memory.  Between this,\n" +
"   and the fact that mmap regions tend to be limited, the size should\n" +
"   be large, to avoid too many mmap calls and thus avoid running out\n" +
"   of kernel resources.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE\n" +
"#define MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE (1024 * 1024)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Define HAVE_MREMAP to make realloc() use mremap() to re-allocate\n" +
"  large blocks.  This is currently only possible on Linux with\n" +
"  kernel versions newer than 1.3.77.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef HAVE_MREMAP\n" +
"#ifdef linux\n" +
"#define HAVE_MREMAP 1\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define HAVE_MREMAP 0\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif /* HAVE_MMAP */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  The system page size. To the extent possible, this malloc manages\n" +
"  memory from the system in page-size units.  Note that this value is\n" +
"  cached during initialization into a field of malloc_state. So even\n" +
"  if malloc_getpagesize is a function, it is only called once.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The following mechanics for getpagesize were adapted from bsd/gnu\n" +
"  getpagesize.h. If none of the system-probes here apply, a value of\n" +
"  4096 is used, which should be OK: If they don't apply, then using\n" +
"  the actual value probably doesn't impact performance.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef malloc_getpagesize\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef LACKS_UNISTD_H\n" +
"#  include <unistd.h>\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#  ifdef _SC_PAGESIZE         /* some SVR4 systems omit an underscore */\n" +
"#    ifndef _SC_PAGE_SIZE\n" +
"#      define _SC_PAGE_SIZE _SC_PAGESIZE\n" +
"#    endif\n" +
"#  endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#  ifdef _SC_PAGE_SIZE\n" +
"#    define malloc_getpagesize sysconf(_SC_PAGE_SIZE)\n" +
"#  else\n" +
"#    if defined(BSD) || defined(DGUX) || defined(HAVE_GETPAGESIZE)\n" +
"       extern size_t getpagesize();\n" +
"#      define malloc_getpagesize getpagesize()\n" +
"#    else\n" +
"#      ifdef WIN32 /* use supplied emulation of getpagesize */\n" +
"#        define malloc_getpagesize getpagesize()\n" +
"#      else\n" +
"#        ifndef LACKS_SYS_PARAM_H\n" +
"#          include <sys/param.h>\n" +
"#        endif\n" +
"#        ifdef EXEC_PAGESIZE\n" +
"#          define malloc_getpagesize EXEC_PAGESIZE\n" +
"#        else\n" +
"#          ifdef NBPG\n" +
"#            ifndef CLSIZE\n" +
"#              define malloc_getpagesize NBPG\n" +
"#            else\n" +
"#              define malloc_getpagesize (NBPG * CLSIZE)\n" +
"#            endif\n" +
"#          else\n" +
"#            ifdef NBPC\n" +
"#              define malloc_getpagesize NBPC\n" +
"#            else\n" +
"#              ifdef PAGESIZE\n" +
"#                define malloc_getpagesize PAGESIZE\n" +
"#              else /* just guess */\n" +
"#                define malloc_getpagesize (4096)\n" +
"#              endif\n" +
"#            endif\n" +
"#          endif\n" +
"#        endif\n" +
"#      endif\n" +
"#    endif\n" +
"#  endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  This version of malloc supports the standard SVID/XPG mallinfo\n" +
"  routine that returns a struct containing usage properties and\n" +
"  statistics. It should work on any SVID/XPG compliant system that has\n" +
"  a /usr/include/malloc.h defining struct mallinfo. (If you'd like to\n" +
"  install such a thing yourself, cut out the preliminary declarations\n" +
"  as described above and below and save them in a malloc.h file. But\n" +
"  there's no compelling reason to bother to do this.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  The main declaration needed is the mallinfo struct that is returned\n" +
"  (by-copy) by mallinfo().  The SVID/XPG malloinfo struct contains a\n" +
"  bunch of fields that are not even meaningful in this version of\n" +
"  malloc.  These fields are are instead filled by mallinfo() with\n" +
"  other numbers that might be of interest.\n" +
"\n" +
"  HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H should be set if you have a\n" +
"  /usr/include/malloc.h file that includes a declaration of struct\n" +
"  mallinfo.  If so, it is included; else an SVID2/XPG2 compliant\n" +
"  version is declared below.  These must be precisely the same for\n" +
"  mallinfo() to work.  The original SVID version of this struct,\n" +
"  defined on most systems with mallinfo, declares all fields as\n" +
"  ints. But some others define as unsigned long. If your system\n" +
"  defines the fields using a type of different width than listed here,\n" +
"  you must #include your system version and #define\n" +
"  HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #define HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H */\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef HAVE_USR_INCLUDE_MALLOC_H\n" +
"#include \"/usr/include/malloc.h\"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"\n" +
"/* SVID2/XPG mallinfo structure */\n" +
"\n" +
"struct mallinfo {\n" +
"  int arena;    /* non-mmapped space allocated from system */\n" +
"  int ordblks;  /* number of free chunks */\n" +
"  int smblks;   /* number of fastbin blocks */\n" +
"  int hblks;    /* number of mmapped regions */\n" +
"  int hblkhd;   /* space in mmapped regions */\n" +
"  int usmblks;  /* maximum total allocated space */\n" +
"  int fsmblks;  /* space available in freed fastbin blocks */\n" +
"  int uordblks; /* total allocated space */\n" +
"  int fordblks; /* total free space */\n" +
"  int keepcost; /* top-most, releasable (via malloc_trim) space */\n" +
"};\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  SVID/XPG defines four standard parameter numbers for mallopt,\n" +
"  normally defined in malloc.h.  Only one of these (M_MXFAST) is used\n" +
"  in this malloc. The others (M_NLBLKS, M_GRAIN, M_KEEP) don't apply,\n" +
"  so setting them has no effect. But this malloc also supports other\n" +
"  options in mallopt described below.\n" +
"*/\n") +
("#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* ---------- description of public routines ------------ */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  malloc(size_t n)\n" +
"  Returns a pointer to a newly allocated chunk of at least n bytes, or null\n" +
"  if no space is available. Additionally, on failure, errno is\n" +
"  set to ENOMEM on ANSI C systems.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If n is zero, malloc returns a minumum-sized chunk. (The minimum\n" +
"  size is 16 bytes on most 32bit systems, and 24 or 32 bytes on 64bit\n" +
"  systems.)  On most systems, size_t is an unsigned type, so calls\n" +
"  with negative arguments are interpreted as requests for huge amounts\n" +
"  of space, which will often fail. The maximum supported value of n\n" +
"  differs across systems, but is in all cases less than the maximum\n" +
"  representable value of a size_t.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_mALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_mALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  free(Void_t* p)\n" +
"  Releases the chunk of memory pointed to by p, that had been previously\n" +
"  allocated using malloc or a related routine such as realloc.\n" +
"  It has no effect if p is null. It can have arbitrary (i.e., bad!)\n" +
"  effects if p has already been freed.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Unless disabled (using mallopt), freeing very large spaces will\n" +
"  when possible, automatically trigger operations that give\n" +
"  back unused memory to the system, thus reducing program footprint.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"void     public_fREe(Void_t*);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"void     public_fREe();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  calloc(size_t n_elements, size_t element_size);\n" +
"  Returns a pointer to n_elements * element_size bytes, with all locations\n" +
"  set to zero.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_cALLOc(size_t, size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_cALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  realloc(Void_t* p, size_t n)\n" +
"  Returns a pointer to a chunk of size n that contains the same data\n" +
"  as does chunk p up to the minimum of (n, p's size) bytes, or null\n" +
"  if no space is available.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The returned pointer may or may not be the same as p. The algorithm\n" +
"  prefers extending p when possible, otherwise it employs the\n" +
"  equivalent of a malloc-copy-free sequence.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If p is null, realloc is equivalent to malloc.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If space is not available, realloc returns null, errno is set (if on\n" +
"  ANSI) and p is NOT freed.\n" +
"\n" +
"  if n is for fewer bytes than already held by p, the newly unused\n" +
"  space is lopped off and freed if possible.  Unless the #define\n" +
"  REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES is set, realloc with a size argument of\n" +
"  zero (re)allocates a minimum-sized chunk.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Large chunks that were internally obtained via mmap will always\n" +
"  be reallocated using malloc-copy-free sequences unless\n" +
"  the system supports MREMAP (currently only linux).\n" +
"\n" +
"  The old unix realloc convention of allowing the last-free'd chunk\n" +
"  to be used as an argument to realloc is not supported.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_rEALLOc(Void_t*, size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_rEALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  memalign(size_t alignment, size_t n);\n" +
"  Returns a pointer to a newly allocated chunk of n bytes, aligned\n" +
"  in accord with the alignment argument.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The alignment argument should be a power of two. If the argument is\n" +
"  not a power of two, the nearest greater power is used.\n" +
"  8-byte alignment is guaranteed by normal malloc calls, so don't\n" +
"  bother calling memalign with an argument of 8 or less.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Overreliance on memalign is a sure way to fragment space.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_mEMALIGn(size_t, size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_mEMALIGn();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  valloc(size_t n);\n" +
"  Equivalent to memalign(pagesize, n), where pagesize is the page\n" +
"  size of the system. If the pagesize is unknown, 4096 is used.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_vALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_vALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  mallopt(int parameter_number, int parameter_value)\n" +
"  Sets tunable parameters The format is to provide a\n" +
"  (parameter-number, parameter-value) pair.  mallopt then sets the\n" +
"  corresponding parameter to the argument value if it can (i.e., so\n" +
"  long as the value is meaningful), and returns 1 if successful else\n" +
"  0.  SVID/XPG/ANSI defines four standard param numbers for mallopt,\n" +
"  normally defined in malloc.h.  Only one of these (M_MXFAST) is used\n" +
"  in this malloc. The others (M_NLBLKS, M_GRAIN, M_KEEP) don't apply,\n" +
"  so setting them has no effect. But this malloc also supports four\n" +
"  other options in mallopt. See below for details.  Briefly, supported\n" +
"  parameters are as follows (listed defaults are for \"typical\"\n" +
"  configurations).\n" +
"\n" +
"  Symbol            param #   default    allowed param values\n" +
"  M_MXFAST          1         64         0-80  (0 disables fastbins)\n" +
"  M_TRIM_THRESHOLD -1         256*1024   any   (-1U disables trimming)\n" +
"  M_TOP_PAD        -2         0          any\n" +
"  M_MMAP_THRESHOLD -3         256*1024   any   (or 0 if no MMAP support)\n" +
"  M_MMAP_MAX       -4         65536      any   (0 disables use of mmap)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"int      public_mALLOPt(int, int);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"int      public_mALLOPt();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  mallinfo()\n" +
"  Returns (by copy) a struct containing various summary statistics:\n" +
"\n") +
("  arena:     current total non-mmapped bytes allocated from system\n" +
"  ordblks:   the number of free chunks\n" +
"  smblks:    the number of fastbin blocks (i.e., small chunks that\n" +
"               have been freed but not use resused or consolidated)\n" +
"  hblks:     current number of mmapped regions\n" +
"  hblkhd:    total bytes held in mmapped regions\n" +
"  usmblks:   the maximum total allocated space. This will be greater\n" +
"                than current total if trimming has occurred.\n" +
"  fsmblks:   total bytes held in fastbin blocks\n" +
"  uordblks:  current total allocated space (normal or mmapped)\n" +
"  fordblks:  total free space\n" +
"  keepcost:  the maximum number of bytes that could ideally be released\n" +
"               back to system via malloc_trim. (\"ideally\" means that\n" +
"               it ignores page restrictions etc.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Because these fields are ints, but internal bookkeeping may\n" +
"  be kept as longs, the reported values may wrap around zero and\n" +
"  thus be inaccurate.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"struct mallinfo public_mALLINFo(void);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"struct mallinfo public_mALLINFo();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  independent_calloc(size_t n_elements, size_t element_size, Void_t* chunks[]);\n" +
"\n" +
"  independent_calloc is similar to calloc, but instead of returning a\n" +
"  single cleared space, it returns an array of pointers to n_elements\n" +
"  independent elements that can hold contents of size elem_size, each\n" +
"  of which starts out cleared, and can be independently freed,\n" +
"  realloc'ed etc. The elements are guaranteed to be adjacently\n" +
"  allocated (this is not guaranteed to occur with multiple callocs or\n" +
"  mallocs), which may also improve cache locality in some\n" +
"  applications.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The \"chunks\" argument is optional (i.e., may be null, which is\n" +
"  probably the most typical usage). If it is null, the returned array\n" +
"  is itself dynamically allocated and should also be freed when it is\n" +
"  no longer needed. Otherwise, the chunks array must be of at least\n" +
"  n_elements in length. It is filled in with the pointers to the\n" +
"  chunks.\n" +
"\n" +
"  In either case, independent_calloc returns this pointer array, or\n" +
"  null if the allocation failed.  If n_elements is zero and \"chunks\"\n" +
"  is null, it returns a chunk representing an array with zero elements\n" +
"  (which should be freed if not wanted).\n" +
"\n" +
"  Each element must be individually freed when it is no longer\n" +
"  needed. If you'd like to instead be able to free all at once, you\n" +
"  should instead use regular calloc and assign pointers into this\n" +
"  space to represent elements.  (In this case though, you cannot\n" +
"  independently free elements.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  independent_calloc simplifies and speeds up implementations of many\n" +
"  kinds of pools.  It may also be useful when constructing large data\n" +
"  structures that initially have a fixed number of fixed-sized nodes,\n" +
"  but the number is not known at compile time, and some of the nodes\n" +
"  may later need to be freed. For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"  struct Node { int item; struct Node* next; };\n" +
"\n" +
"  struct Node* build_list() {\n" +
"    struct Node** pool;\n" +
"    int n = read_number_of_nodes_needed();\n" +
"    if (n <= 0) return 0;\n" +
"    pool = (struct Node**)(independent_calloc(n, sizeof(struct Node), 0);\n" +
"    if (pool == 0) die();\n" +
"    // organize into a linked list...\n" +
"    struct Node* first = pool[0];\n" +
"    for (i = 0; i < n-1; ++i)\n" +
"      pool[i]->next = pool[i+1];\n" +
"    free(pool);     // Can now free the array (or not, if it is needed later)\n" +
"    return first;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCALLOc(size_t, size_t, Void_t**);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  independent_comalloc(size_t n_elements, size_t sizes[], Void_t* chunks[]);\n" +
"\n" +
"  independent_comalloc allocates, all at once, a set of n_elements\n" +
"  chunks with sizes indicated in the \"sizes\" array.    It returns\n" +
"  an array of pointers to these elements, each of which can be\n" +
"  independently freed, realloc'ed etc. The elements are guaranteed to\n" +
"  be adjacently allocated (this is not guaranteed to occur with\n" +
"  multiple callocs or mallocs), which may also improve cache locality\n" +
"  in some applications.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The \"chunks\" argument is optional (i.e., may be null). If it is null\n" +
"  the returned array is itself dynamically allocated and should also\n" +
"  be freed when it is no longer needed. Otherwise, the chunks array\n" +
"  must be of at least n_elements in length. It is filled in with the\n" +
"  pointers to the chunks.\n" +
"\n" +
"  In either case, independent_comalloc returns this pointer array, or\n" +
"  null if the allocation failed.  If n_elements is zero and chunks is\n" +
"  null, it returns a chunk representing an array with zero elements\n" +
"  (which should be freed if not wanted).\n" +
"\n" +
"  Each element must be individually freed when it is no longer\n" +
"  needed. If you'd like to instead be able to free all at once, you\n" +
"  should instead use a single regular malloc, and assign pointers at\n" +
"  particular offsets in the aggregate space. (In this case though, you\n" +
"  cannot independently free elements.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  independent_comallac differs from independent_calloc in that each\n" +
"  element may have a different size, and also that it does not\n" +
"  automatically clear elements.\n" +
"\n" +
"  independent_comalloc can be used to speed up allocation in cases\n" +
"  where several structs or objects must always be allocated at the\n" +
"  same time.  For example:\n" +
"\n" +
"  struct Head { ... }\n" +
"  struct Foot { ... }\n" +
"\n" +
"  void send_message(char* msg) {\n" +
"    int msglen = strlen(msg);\n" +
"    size_t sizes[3] = { sizeof(struct Head), msglen, sizeof(struct Foot) };\n" +
"    void* chunks[3];\n" +
"    if (independent_comalloc(3, sizes, chunks) == 0)\n" +
"      die();\n" +
"    struct Head* head = (struct Head*)(chunks[0]);\n" +
"    char*        body = (char*)(chunks[1]);\n" +
"    struct Foot* foot = (struct Foot*)(chunks[2]);\n" +
"    // ...\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  In general though, independent_comalloc is worth using only for\n" +
"  larger values of n_elements. For small values, you probably won't\n" +
"  detect enough difference from series of malloc calls to bother.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Overuse of independent_comalloc can increase overall memory usage,\n" +
"  since it cannot reuse existing noncontiguous small chunks that\n" +
"  might be available for some of the elements.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCOMALLOc(size_t, size_t*, Void_t**);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCOMALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n") +
("  pvalloc(size_t n);\n" +
"  Equivalent to valloc(minimum-page-that-holds(n)), that is,\n" +
"  round up n to nearest pagesize.\n" +
" */\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t*  public_pVALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t*  public_pVALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  cfree(Void_t* p);\n" +
"  Equivalent to free(p).\n" +
"\n" +
"  cfree is needed/defined on some systems that pair it with calloc,\n" +
"  for odd historical reasons (such as: cfree is used in example\n" +
"  code in the first edition of K&R).\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"void     public_cFREe(Void_t*);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"void     public_cFREe();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  malloc_trim(size_t pad);\n" +
"\n" +
"  If possible, gives memory back to the system (via negative\n" +
"  arguments to sbrk) if there is unused memory at the `high' end of\n" +
"  the malloc pool. You can call this after freeing large blocks of\n" +
"  memory to potentially reduce the system-level memory requirements\n" +
"  of a program. However, it cannot guarantee to reduce memory. Under\n" +
"  some allocation patterns, some large free blocks of memory will be\n" +
"  locked between two used chunks, so they cannot be given back to\n" +
"  the system.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The `pad' argument to malloc_trim represents the amount of free\n" +
"  trailing space to leave untrimmed. If this argument is zero,\n" +
"  only the minimum amount of memory to maintain internal data\n" +
"  structures will be left (one page or less). Non-zero arguments\n" +
"  can be supplied to maintain enough trailing space to service\n" +
"  future expected allocations without having to re-obtain memory\n" +
"  from the system.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Malloc_trim returns 1 if it actually released any memory, else 0.\n" +
"  On systems that do not support \"negative sbrks\", it will always\n" +
"  rreturn 0.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"int      public_mTRIm(size_t);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"int      public_mTRIm();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  malloc_usable_size(Void_t* p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  Returns the number of bytes you can actually use in\n" +
"  an allocated chunk, which may be more than you requested (although\n" +
"  often not) due to alignment and minimum size constraints.\n" +
"  You can use this many bytes without worrying about\n" +
"  overwriting other allocated objects. This is not a particularly great\n" +
"  programming practice. malloc_usable_size can be more useful in\n" +
"  debugging and assertions, for example:\n" +
"\n" +
"  p = malloc(n);\n" +
"  assert(malloc_usable_size(p) >= 256);\n" +
"\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"size_t   public_mUSABLe(Void_t*);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"size_t   public_mUSABLe();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  malloc_stats();\n" +
"  Prints on stderr the amount of space obtained from the system (both\n" +
"  via sbrk and mmap), the maximum amount (which may be more than\n" +
"  current if malloc_trim and/or munmap got called), and the current\n" +
"  number of bytes allocated via malloc (or realloc, etc) but not yet\n" +
"  freed. Note that this is the number of bytes allocated, not the\n" +
"  number requested. It will be larger than the number requested\n" +
"  because of alignment and bookkeeping overhead. Because it includes\n" +
"  alignment wastage as being in use, this figure may be greater than\n" +
"  zero even when no user-level chunks are allocated.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The reported current and maximum system memory can be inaccurate if\n" +
"  a program makes other calls to system memory allocation functions\n" +
"  (normally sbrk) outside of malloc.\n" +
"\n" +
"  malloc_stats prints only the most commonly interesting statistics.\n" +
"  More information can be obtained by calling mallinfo.\n" +
"\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"void     public_mSTATs();\n" +
"#else\n" +
"void     public_mSTATs();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* mallopt tuning options */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  M_MXFAST is the maximum request size used for \"fastbins\", special bins\n" +
"  that hold returned chunks without consolidating their spaces. This\n" +
"  enables future requests for chunks of the same size to be handled\n" +
"  very quickly, but can increase fragmentation, and thus increase the\n" +
"  overall memory footprint of a program.\n" +
"\n" +
"  This malloc manages fastbins very conservatively yet still\n" +
"  efficiently, so fragmentation is rarely a problem for values less\n" +
"  than or equal to the default.  The maximum supported value of MXFAST\n" +
"  is 80. You wouldn't want it any higher than this anyway.  Fastbins\n" +
"  are designed especially for use with many small structs, objects or\n" +
"  strings -- the default handles structs/objects/arrays with sizes up\n" +
"  to 16 4byte fields, or small strings representing words, tokens,\n" +
"  etc. Using fastbins for larger objects normally worsens\n" +
"  fragmentation without improving speed.\n" +
"\n" +
"  M_MXFAST is set in REQUEST size units. It is internally used in\n" +
"  chunksize units, which adds padding and alignment.  You can reduce\n" +
"  M_MXFAST to 0 to disable all use of fastbins.  This causes the malloc\n" +
"  algorithm to be a closer approximation of fifo-best-fit in all cases,\n" +
"  not just for larger requests, but will generally cause it to be\n" +
"  slower.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* M_MXFAST is a standard SVID/XPG tuning option, usually listed in malloc.h */\n" +
"#ifndef M_MXFAST\n" +
"#define M_MXFAST            1\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef DEFAULT_MXFAST\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_MXFAST     64\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  M_TRIM_THRESHOLD is the maximum amount of unused top-most memory\n" +
"  to keep before releasing via malloc_trim in free().\n" +
"\n" +
"  Automatic trimming is mainly useful in long-lived programs.\n" +
"  Because trimming via sbrk can be slow on some systems, and can\n" +
"  sometimes be wasteful (in cases where programs immediately\n" +
"  afterward allocate more large chunks) the value should be high\n" +
"  enough so that your overall system performance would improve by\n" +
"  releasing this much memory.\n" +
"\n") +
("  The trim threshold and the mmap control parameters (see below)\n" +
"  can be traded off with one another. Trimming and mmapping are\n" +
"  two different ways of releasing unused memory back to the\n" +
"  system. Between these two, it is often possible to keep\n" +
"  system-level demands of a long-lived program down to a bare\n" +
"  minimum. For example, in one test suite of sessions measuring\n" +
"  the XF86 X server on Linux, using a trim threshold of 128K and a\n" +
"  mmap threshold of 192K led to near-minimal long term resource\n" +
"  consumption.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If you are using this malloc in a long-lived program, it should\n" +
"  pay to experiment with these values.  As a rough guide, you\n" +
"  might set to a value close to the average size of a process\n" +
"  (program) running on your system.  Releasing this much memory\n" +
"  would allow such a process to run in memory.  Generally, it's\n" +
"  worth it to tune for trimming rather tham memory mapping when a\n" +
"  program undergoes phases where several large chunks are\n" +
"  allocated and released in ways that can reuse each other's\n" +
"  storage, perhaps mixed with phases where there are no such\n" +
"  chunks at all.  And in well-behaved long-lived programs,\n" +
"  controlling release of large blocks via trimming versus mapping\n" +
"  is usually faster.\n" +
"\n" +
"  However, in most programs, these parameters serve mainly as\n" +
"  protection against the system-level effects of carrying around\n" +
"  massive amounts of unneeded memory. Since frequent calls to\n" +
"  sbrk, mmap, and munmap otherwise degrade performance, the default\n" +
"  parameters are set to relatively high values that serve only as\n" +
"  safeguards.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The trim value must be greater than page size to have any useful\n" +
"  effect.  To disable trimming completely, you can set to\n" +
"  (unsigned long)(-1)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Trim settings interact with fastbin (MXFAST) settings: Unless\n" +
"  TRIM_FASTBINS is defined, automatic trimming never takes place upon\n" +
"  freeing a chunk with size less than or equal to MXFAST. Trimming is\n" +
"  instead delayed until subsequent freeing of larger chunks. However,\n" +
"  you can still force an attempted trim by calling malloc_trim.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Also, trimming is not generally possible in cases where\n" +
"  the main arena is obtained via mmap.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Note that the trick some people use of mallocing a huge space and\n" +
"  then freeing it at program startup, in an attempt to reserve system\n" +
"  memory, doesn't have the intended effect under automatic trimming,\n" +
"  since that memory will immediately be returned to the system.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define M_TRIM_THRESHOLD       -1\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef DEFAULT_TRIM_THRESHOLD\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_TRIM_THRESHOLD (256 * 1024)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  M_TOP_PAD is the amount of extra `padding' space to allocate or\n" +
"  retain whenever sbrk is called. It is used in two ways internally:\n" +
"\n" +
"  * When sbrk is called to extend the top of the arena to satisfy\n" +
"  a new malloc request, this much padding is added to the sbrk\n" +
"  request.\n" +
"\n" +
"  * When malloc_trim is called automatically from free(),\n" +
"  it is used as the `pad' argument.\n" +
"\n" +
"  In both cases, the actual amount of padding is rounded\n" +
"  so that the end of the arena is always a system page boundary.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The main reason for using padding is to avoid calling sbrk so\n" +
"  often. Having even a small pad greatly reduces the likelihood\n" +
"  that nearly every malloc request during program start-up (or\n" +
"  after trimming) will invoke sbrk, which needlessly wastes\n" +
"  time.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Automatic rounding-up to page-size units is normally sufficient\n" +
"  to avoid measurable overhead, so the default is 0.  However, in\n" +
"  systems where sbrk is relatively slow, it can pay to increase\n" +
"  this value, at the expense of carrying around more memory than\n" +
"  the program needs.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define M_TOP_PAD              -2\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef DEFAULT_TOP_PAD\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_TOP_PAD        (0)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  M_MMAP_THRESHOLD is the request size threshold for using mmap()\n" +
"  to service a request. Requests of at least this size that cannot\n" +
"  be allocated using already-existing space will be serviced via mmap.\n" +
"  (If enough normal freed space already exists it is used instead.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  Using mmap segregates relatively large chunks of memory so that\n" +
"  they can be individually obtained and released from the host\n" +
"  system. A request serviced through mmap is never reused by any\n" +
"  other request (at least not directly; the system may just so\n" +
"  happen to remap successive requests to the same locations).\n" +
"\n" +
"  Segregating space in this way has the benefits that:\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. Mmapped space can ALWAYS be individually released back\n" +
"      to the system, which helps keep the system level memory\n" +
"      demands of a long-lived program low.\n" +
"   2. Mapped memory can never become `locked' between\n" +
"      other chunks, as can happen with normally allocated chunks, which\n" +
"      means that even trimming via malloc_trim would not release them.\n" +
"   3. On some systems with \"holes\" in address spaces, mmap can obtain\n" +
"      memory that sbrk cannot.\n" +
"\n" +
"  However, it has the disadvantages that:\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. The space cannot be reclaimed, consolidated, and then\n" +
"      used to service later requests, as happens with normal chunks.\n" +
"   2. It can lead to more wastage because of mmap page alignment\n" +
"      requirements\n" +
"   3. It causes malloc performance to be more dependent on host\n" +
"      system memory management support routines which may vary in\n" +
"      implementation quality and may impose arbitrary\n" +
"      limitations. Generally, servicing a request via normal\n" +
"      malloc steps is faster than going through a system's mmap.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The advantages of mmap nearly always outweigh disadvantages for\n" +
"  \"large\" chunks, but the value of \"large\" varies across systems.  The\n" +
"  default is an empirically derived value that works well in most\n" +
"  systems.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define M_MMAP_THRESHOLD      -3\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef DEFAULT_MMAP_THRESHOLD\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_MMAP_THRESHOLD (256 * 1024)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  M_MMAP_MAX is the maximum number of requests to simultaneously\n" +
"  service using mmap. This parameter exists because\n" +
". Some systems have a limited number of internal tables for\n" +
"  use by mmap, and using more than a few of them may degrade\n" +
"  performance.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The default is set to a value that serves only as a safeguard.\n" +
"  Setting to 0 disables use of mmap for servicing large requests.  If\n" +
"  HAVE_MMAP is not set, the default value is 0, and attempts to set it\n" +
"  to non-zero values in mallopt will fail.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define M_MMAP_MAX             -4\n" +
"\n") +
("#ifndef DEFAULT_MMAP_MAX\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_MMAP_MAX       (65536)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define DEFAULT_MMAP_MAX       (0)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ========================================================================\n" +
"  To make a fully customizable malloc.h header file, cut everything\n" +
"  above this line, put into file malloc.h, edit to suit, and #include it\n" +
"  on the next line, as well as in programs that use this malloc.\n" +
"  ========================================================================\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* #include \"malloc.h\" */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* --------------------- public wrappers ---------------------- */\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef USE_PUBLIC_MALLOC_WRAPPERS\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Declare all routines as internal */\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static Void_t*  mALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"static void     fREe(Void_t*);\n" +
"static Void_t*  rEALLOc(Void_t*, size_t);\n" +
"static Void_t*  mEMALIGn(size_t, size_t);\n" +
"static Void_t*  vALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"static Void_t*  pVALLOc(size_t);\n" +
"static Void_t*  cALLOc(size_t, size_t);\n" +
"static Void_t** iCALLOc(size_t, size_t, Void_t**);\n" +
"static Void_t** iCOMALLOc(size_t, size_t*, Void_t**);\n" +
"static void     cFREe(Void_t*);\n" +
"static int      mTRIm(size_t);\n" +
"static size_t   mUSABLe(Void_t*);\n" +
"static void     mSTATs();\n" +
"static int      mALLOPt(int, int);\n" +
"static struct mallinfo mALLINFo(void);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static Void_t*  mALLOc();\n" +
"static void     fREe();\n" +
"static Void_t*  rEALLOc();\n" +
"static Void_t*  mEMALIGn();\n" +
"static Void_t*  vALLOc();\n" +
"static Void_t*  pVALLOc();\n" +
"static Void_t*  cALLOc();\n" +
"static Void_t** iCALLOc();\n" +
"static Void_t** iCOMALLOc();\n" +
"static void     cFREe();\n" +
"static int      mTRIm();\n" +
"static size_t   mUSABLe();\n" +
"static void     mSTATs();\n" +
"static int      mALLOPt();\n" +
"static struct mallinfo mALLINFo();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  MALLOC_PREACTION and MALLOC_POSTACTION should be\n" +
"  defined to return 0 on success, and nonzero on failure.\n" +
"  The return value of MALLOC_POSTACTION is currently ignored\n" +
"  in wrapper functions since there is no reasonable default\n" +
"  action to take on failure.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef USE_MALLOC_LOCK\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"\n" +
"static int mALLOC_MUTEx;\n" +
"#define MALLOC_PREACTION   slwait(&mALLOC_MUTEx)\n" +
"#define MALLOC_POSTACTION  slrelease(&mALLOC_MUTEx)\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"\n" +
"#include <pthread.h>\n" +
"\n" +
"static pthread_mutex_t mALLOC_MUTEx = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MALLOC_PREACTION   pthread_mutex_lock(&mALLOC_MUTEx)\n" +
"#define MALLOC_POSTACTION  pthread_mutex_unlock(&mALLOC_MUTEx)\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif /* USE_MALLOC_LOCK */\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Substitute anything you like for these */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MALLOC_PREACTION   (0)\n" +
"#define MALLOC_POSTACTION  (0)\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_mALLOc(size_t bytes) {\n" +
"  Void_t* m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = mALLOc(bytes);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"static pthread_once_t free_mutex_once = PTHREAD_ONCE_INIT;\n" +
"static pthread_mutex_t free_mutex;\n" +
"static int scheduled_free_size;\n" +
"static int scheduled_free_capacity;\n" +
"static int scheduled_free_list;\n" +
"bool free_is_scheduled;\n" +
"\n" +
"static void initialize_scheduled_free_list()\n" +
"{\n" +
"    pthread_mutex_init(&free_mutex, NULL);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"static void drain_scheduled_free_list()\n" +
"{\n" +
"    pthread_mutex_lock(&free_mutex);\n" +
"    if (free_is_scheduled) {\n" +
"        for(int i = 0; i < scheduled_free_size; i++) {\n" +
"            main_thread_free(scheduled_free_list[i]);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        free(scheduled_free_list);\n" +
"        scheduled_free_list = NULL;\n" +
"        scheduled_free_size = 0;\n" +
"        scheduled_free_capacity = 0;\n" +
"        free_is_scheduled = false;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    pthread_mutex_unlock(&free_mutex);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"static void schedule_free_on_main_thread(Void_t* m)\n" +
"{\n" +
"    pthread_once(&free_mutex_once, initialize_scheduled_free_list);\n" +
"\n" +
"    pthread_mutex_lock(&free_mutex);\n" +
"    if (scheduled_free_size == scheduled_free_capacity) {\n" +
"        scheduled_free_capacity = scheduled_free_capacity == 0 ? 16 : scheduled_free_capacity * 1.2;\n" +
"        scheduled_free_list = (Void_t**)realloc(scheduled_free_list, sizeof(Void_t*) * scheduled_free_capacity);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    scheduled_free_list[scheduled_free_size++] = m;\n" +
"    if (!free_is_scheduled) {\n" +
"        QTimer::immediateSingleShotOnMainThread(0, drain_scheduled_free_list);\n" +
"        free_is_scheduled = true;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    pthread_mutex_unlock(&free_mutex);\n" +
"}\n") +
("\n" +
"void public_fREe(Void_t* m) {\n" +
"  if (!pthread_main_np()) {\n" +
"      schedule_free_on_main_thread(m);\n" +
"      return;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  fREe(m);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_rEALLOc(Void_t* m, size_t bytes) {\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = rEALLOc(m, bytes);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_mEMALIGn(size_t alignment, size_t bytes) {\n" +
"  Void_t* m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = mEMALIGn(alignment, bytes);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_vALLOc(size_t bytes) {\n" +
"  Void_t* m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = vALLOc(bytes);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_pVALLOc(size_t bytes) {\n" +
"  Void_t* m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = pVALLOc(bytes);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t* public_cALLOc(size_t n, size_t elem_size) {\n" +
"  Void_t* m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = cALLOc(n, elem_size);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCALLOc(size_t n, size_t elem_size, Void_t** chunks) {\n" +
"  Void_t** m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = iCALLOc(n, elem_size, chunks);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"Void_t** public_iCOMALLOc(size_t n, size_t sizes[], Void_t** chunks) {\n" +
"  Void_t** m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = iCOMALLOc(n, sizes, chunks);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"void public_cFREe(Void_t* m) {\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  cFREe(m);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"int public_mTRIm(size_t s) {\n" +
"  int result;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  result = mTRIm(s);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return result;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"size_t public_mUSABLe(Void_t* m) {\n" +
"  size_t result;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  result = mUSABLe(m);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return result;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"void public_mSTATs() {\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  mSTATs();\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"struct mallinfo public_mALLINFo() {\n" +
"  struct mallinfo m;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    struct mallinfo nm = { 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 };\n" +
"    return nm;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  m = mALLINFo();\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return m;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"int public_mALLOPt(int p, int v) {\n" +
"  int result;\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_PREACTION != 0) {\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  result = mALLOPt(p, v);\n" +
"  if (MALLOC_POSTACTION != 0) {\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return result;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n") +
("#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* ------------- Optional versions of memcopy ---------------- */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if USE_MEMCPY\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Note: memcpy is ONLY invoked with non-overlapping regions,\n" +
"  so the (usually slower) memmove is not needed.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MALLOC_COPY(dest, src, nbytes)  memcpy(dest, src, nbytes)\n" +
"#define MALLOC_ZERO(dest, nbytes)       memset(dest, 0,   nbytes)\n" +
"\n" +
"#else /* !USE_MEMCPY */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Use Duff's device for good zeroing/copying performance. */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MALLOC_ZERO(charp, nbytes)                                            \\n" +
"do {                                                                          \\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* mzp = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*)(charp);                           \\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  mctmp = (nbytes)/sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T);                     \\n" +
"  long mcn;                                                                   \\n" +
"  if (mctmp < 8) mcn = 0; else { mcn = (mctmp-1)/8; mctmp %= 8; }             \\n" +
"  switch (mctmp) {                                                            \\n" +
"    case 0: for(;;) { *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 7:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 6:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 5:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 4:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 3:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 2:           *mzp++ = 0;                                             \\n" +
"    case 1:           *mzp++ = 0; if(mcn <= 0) break; mcn--; }                \\n" +
"  }                                                                           \\n" +
"} while(0)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MALLOC_COPY(dest,src,nbytes)                                          \\n" +
"do {                                                                          \\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* mcsrc = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*) src;                            \\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* mcdst = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*) dest;                           \\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  mctmp = (nbytes)/sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T);                     \\n" +
"  long mcn;                                                                   \\n" +
"  if (mctmp < 8) mcn = 0; else { mcn = (mctmp-1)/8; mctmp %= 8; }             \\n" +
"  switch (mctmp) {                                                            \\n" +
"    case 0: for(;;) { *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 7:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 6:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 5:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 4:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 3:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 2:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++;                                    \\n" +
"    case 1:           *mcdst++ = *mcsrc++; if(mcn <= 0) break; mcn--; }       \\n" +
"  }                                                                           \\n" +
"} while(0)\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* ------------------ MMAP support ------------------  */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef LACKS_FCNTL_H\n" +
"#include <fcntl.h>\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef LACKS_SYS_MMAN_H\n" +
"#include <sys/mman.h>\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#if !defined(MAP_ANONYMOUS) && defined(MAP_ANON)\n" +
"#define MAP_ANONYMOUS MAP_ANON\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Nearly all versions of mmap support MAP_ANONYMOUS,\n" +
"   so the following is unlikely to be needed, but is\n" +
"   supplied just in case.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MAP_ANONYMOUS\n" +
"\n" +
"static int dev_zero_fd = -1; /* Cached file descriptor for /dev/zero. */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MMAP(addr, size, prot, flags) ((dev_zero_fd < 0) ? \\n" +
" (dev_zero_fd = open(\"/dev/zero\", O_RDWR), \\n" +
"  mmap((addr), (size), (prot), (flags), dev_zero_fd, 0)) : \\n" +
"   mmap((addr), (size), (prot), (flags), dev_zero_fd, 0))\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MMAP(addr, size, prot, flags) \\n" +
" (mmap((addr), (size), (prot), (flags)|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0))\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif /* HAVE_MMAP */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  -----------------------  Chunk representations -----------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  This struct declaration is misleading (but accurate and necessary).\n" +
"  It declares a \"view\" into memory allowing access to necessary\n" +
"  fields at known offsets from a given base. See explanation below.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"struct malloc_chunk {\n" +
"\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T      prev_size;  /* Size of previous chunk (if free).  */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T      size;       /* Size in bytes, including overhead. */\n" +
"\n" +
"  struct malloc_chunk* fd;         /* double links -- used only if free. */\n" +
"  struct malloc_chunk* bk;\n" +
"};\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"typedef struct malloc_chunk* mchunkptr;\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   malloc_chunk details:\n" +
"\n" +
"    (The following includes lightly edited explanations by Colin Plumb.)\n" +
"\n" +
"    Chunks of memory are maintained using a `boundary tag' method as\n" +
"    described in e.g., Knuth or Standish.  (See the paper by Paul\n" +
"    Wilson ftp://ftp.cs.utexas.edu/pub/garbage/allocsrv.ps for a\n" +
"    survey of such techniques.)  Sizes of free chunks are stored both\n" +
"    in the front of each chunk and at the end.  This makes\n" +
"    consolidating fragmented chunks into bigger chunks very fast.  The\n" +
"    size fields also hold bits representing whether chunks are free or\n" +
"    in use.\n" +
"\n" +
"    An allocated chunk looks like this:\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"    chunk-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Size of previous chunk, if allocated            | |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Size of chunk, in bytes                         |P|\n" +
"      mem-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             User data starts here...                          .\n" +
"            .                                                               .\n" +
"            .             (malloc_usable_space() bytes)                     .\n" +
"            .                                                               |\n" +
"nextchunk-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Size of chunk                                     |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"\n") +
("\n" +
"    Where \"chunk\" is the front of the chunk for the purpose of most of\n" +
"    the malloc code, but \"mem\" is the pointer that is returned to the\n" +
"    user.  \"Nextchunk\" is the beginning of the next contiguous chunk.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Chunks always begin on even word boundries, so the mem portion\n" +
"    (which is returned to the user) is also on an even word boundary, and\n" +
"    thus at least double-word aligned.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Free chunks are stored in circular doubly-linked lists, and look like this:\n" +
"\n" +
"    chunk-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Size of previous chunk                            |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"    `head:' |             Size of chunk, in bytes                         |P|\n" +
"      mem-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Forward pointer to next chunk in list             |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Back pointer to previous chunk in list            |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"            |             Unused space (may be 0 bytes long)                .\n" +
"            .                                                               .\n" +
"            .                                                               |\n" +
"nextchunk-> +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"    `foot:' |             Size of chunk, in bytes                           |\n" +
"            +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n" +
"\n" +
"    The P (PREV_INUSE) bit, stored in the unused low-order bit of the\n" +
"    chunk size (which is always a multiple of two words), is an in-use\n" +
"    bit for the *previous* chunk.  If that bit is *clear*, then the\n" +
"    word before the current chunk size contains the previous chunk\n" +
"    size, and can be used to find the front of the previous chunk.\n" +
"    The very first chunk allocated always has this bit set,\n" +
"    preventing access to non-existent (or non-owned) memory. If\n" +
"    prev_inuse is set for any given chunk, then you CANNOT determine\n" +
"    the size of the previous chunk, and might even get a memory\n" +
"    addressing fault when trying to do so.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Note that the `foot' of the current chunk is actually represented\n" +
"    as the prev_size of the NEXT chunk. This makes it easier to\n" +
"    deal with alignments etc but can be very confusing when trying\n" +
"    to extend or adapt this code.\n" +
"\n" +
"    The two exceptions to all this are\n" +
"\n" +
"     1. The special chunk `top' doesn't bother using the\n" +
"        trailing size field since there is no next contiguous chunk\n" +
"        that would have to index off it. After initialization, `top'\n" +
"        is forced to always exist.  If it would become less than\n" +
"        MINSIZE bytes long, it is replenished.\n" +
"\n" +
"     2. Chunks allocated via mmap, which have the second-lowest-order\n" +
"        bit (IS_MMAPPED) set in their size fields.  Because they are\n" +
"        allocated one-by-one, each must contain its own trailing size field.\n" +
"\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ---------- Size and alignment checks and conversions ----------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* conversion from malloc headers to user pointers, and back */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define chunk2mem(p)   ((Void_t*)((char*)(p) + 2*SIZE_SZ))\n" +
"#define mem2chunk(mem) ((mchunkptr)((char*)(mem) - 2*SIZE_SZ))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The smallest possible chunk */\n" +
"#define MIN_CHUNK_SIZE        (sizeof(struct malloc_chunk))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The smallest size we can malloc is an aligned minimal chunk */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MINSIZE  \\n" +
"  (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(((MIN_CHUNK_SIZE+MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK) & ~MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Check if m has acceptable alignment */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define aligned_OK(m)  (((PTR_UINT)((m)) & (MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK)) == 0)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Check if a request is so large that it would wrap around zero when\n" +
"   padded and aligned. To simplify some other code, the bound is made\n" +
"   low enough so that adding MINSIZE will also not wrap around sero.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define REQUEST_OUT_OF_RANGE(req)                                 \\n" +
"  ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(req) >=                                        \\n" +
"   (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(INTERNAL_SIZE_T)(-2 * MINSIZE))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* pad request bytes into a usable size -- internal version */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define request2size(req)                                         \\n" +
"  (((req) + SIZE_SZ + MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK < MINSIZE)  ?             \\n" +
"   MINSIZE :                                                      \\n" +
"   ((req) + SIZE_SZ + MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK) & ~MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*  Same, except also perform argument check */\n" +
"\n" +
"#define checked_request2size(req, sz)                             \\n" +
"  if (REQUEST_OUT_OF_RANGE(req)) {                                \\n" +
"    MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION;                                        \\n" +
"    return 0;                                                     \\n" +
"  }                                                               \\n" +
"  (sz) = request2size(req);\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  --------------- Physical chunk operations ---------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* size field is or'ed with PREV_INUSE when previous adjacent chunk in use */\n" +
"#define PREV_INUSE 0x1\n" +
"\n" +
"/* extract inuse bit of previous chunk */\n" +
"#define prev_inuse(p)       ((p)->size & PREV_INUSE)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* size field is or'ed with IS_MMAPPED if the chunk was obtained with mmap() */\n" +
"#define IS_MMAPPED 0x2\n" +
"\n" +
"/* check for mmap()'ed chunk */\n" +
"#define chunk_is_mmapped(p) ((p)->size & IS_MMAPPED)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Bits to mask off when extracting size\n" +
"\n" +
"  Note: IS_MMAPPED is intentionally not masked off from size field in\n" +
"  macros for which mmapped chunks should never be seen. This should\n" +
"  cause helpful core dumps to occur if it is tried by accident by\n" +
"  people extending or adapting this malloc.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"#define SIZE_BITS (PREV_INUSE|IS_MMAPPED)\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Get size, ignoring use bits */\n" +
"#define chunksize(p)         ((p)->size & ~(SIZE_BITS))\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Ptr to next physical malloc_chunk. */\n" +
"#define next_chunk(p) ((mchunkptr)( ((char*)(p)) + ((p)->size & ~PREV_INUSE) ))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Ptr to previous physical malloc_chunk */\n" +
"#define prev_chunk(p) ((mchunkptr)( ((char*)(p)) - ((p)->prev_size) ))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Treat space at ptr + offset as a chunk */\n" +
"#define chunk_at_offset(p, s)  ((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + (s)))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* extract p's inuse bit */\n" +
"#define inuse(p)\\n" +
"((((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p))+((p)->size & ~PREV_INUSE)))->size) & PREV_INUSE)\n" +
"\n" +
"/* set/clear chunk as being inuse without otherwise disturbing */\n" +
"#define set_inuse(p)\\n" +
"((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + ((p)->size & ~PREV_INUSE)))->size |= PREV_INUSE\n" +
"\n") +
("#define clear_inuse(p)\\n" +
"((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + ((p)->size & ~PREV_INUSE)))->size &= ~(PREV_INUSE)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* check/set/clear inuse bits in known places */\n" +
"#define inuse_bit_at_offset(p, s)\\n" +
" (((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + (s)))->size & PREV_INUSE)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define set_inuse_bit_at_offset(p, s)\\n" +
" (((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + (s)))->size |= PREV_INUSE)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define clear_inuse_bit_at_offset(p, s)\\n" +
" (((mchunkptr)(((char*)(p)) + (s)))->size &= ~(PREV_INUSE))\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Set size at head, without disturbing its use bit */\n" +
"#define set_head_size(p, s)  ((p)->size = (((p)->size & PREV_INUSE) | (s)))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Set size/use field */\n" +
"#define set_head(p, s)       ((p)->size = (s))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Set size at footer (only when chunk is not in use) */\n" +
"#define set_foot(p, s)       (((mchunkptr)((char*)(p) + (s)))->prev_size = (s))\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  -------------------- Internal data structures --------------------\n" +
"\n" +
"   All internal state is held in an instance of malloc_state defined\n" +
"   below. There are no other static variables, except in two optional\n" +
"   cases:\n" +
"   * If USE_MALLOC_LOCK is defined, the mALLOC_MUTEx declared above.\n" +
"   * If HAVE_MMAP is true, but mmap doesn't support\n" +
"     MAP_ANONYMOUS, a dummy file descriptor for mmap.\n" +
"\n" +
"   Beware of lots of tricks that minimize the total bookkeeping space\n" +
"   requirements. The result is a little over 1K bytes (for 4byte\n" +
"   pointers and size_t.)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Bins\n" +
"\n" +
"    An array of bin headers for free chunks. Each bin is doubly\n" +
"    linked.  The bins are approximately proportionally (log) spaced.\n" +
"    There are a lot of these bins (128). This may look excessive, but\n" +
"    works very well in practice.  Most bins hold sizes that are\n" +
"    unusual as malloc request sizes, but are more usual for fragments\n" +
"    and consolidated sets of chunks, which is what these bins hold, so\n" +
"    they can be found quickly.  All procedures maintain the invariant\n" +
"    that no consolidated chunk physically borders another one, so each\n" +
"    chunk in a list is known to be preceeded and followed by either\n" +
"    inuse chunks or the ends of memory.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Chunks in bins are kept in size order, with ties going to the\n" +
"    approximately least recently used chunk. Ordering isn't needed\n" +
"    for the small bins, which all contain the same-sized chunks, but\n" +
"    facilitates best-fit allocation for larger chunks. These lists\n" +
"    are just sequential. Keeping them in order almost never requires\n" +
"    enough traversal to warrant using fancier ordered data\n" +
"    structures.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Chunks of the same size are linked with the most\n" +
"    recently freed at the front, and allocations are taken from the\n" +
"    back.  This results in LRU (FIFO) allocation order, which tends\n" +
"    to give each chunk an equal opportunity to be consolidated with\n" +
"    adjacent freed chunks, resulting in larger free chunks and less\n" +
"    fragmentation.\n" +
"\n" +
"    To simplify use in double-linked lists, each bin header acts\n" +
"    as a malloc_chunk. This avoids special-casing for headers.\n" +
"    But to conserve space and improve locality, we allocate\n" +
"    only the fd/bk pointers of bins, and then use repositioning tricks\n" +
"    to treat these as the fields of a malloc_chunk*.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"typedef struct malloc_chunk* mbinptr;\n" +
"\n" +
"/* addressing -- note that bin_at(0) does not exist */\n" +
"#define bin_at(m, i) ((mbinptr)((char*)&((m)->bins[(i)<<1]) - (SIZE_SZ<<1)))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* analog of ++bin */\n" +
"#define next_bin(b)  ((mbinptr)((char*)(b) + (sizeof(mchunkptr)<<1)))\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Reminders about list directionality within bins */\n" +
"#define first(b)     ((b)->fd)\n" +
"#define last(b)      ((b)->bk)\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Take a chunk off a bin list */\n" +
"#define unlink(P, BK, FD) {                                            \\n" +
"  FD = P->fd;                                                          \\n" +
"  BK = P->bk;                                                          \\n" +
"  FD->bk = BK;                                                         \\n" +
"  BK->fd = FD;                                                         \\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Indexing\n" +
"\n" +
"    Bins for sizes < 512 bytes contain chunks of all the same size, spaced\n" +
"    8 bytes apart. Larger bins are approximately logarithmically spaced:\n" +
"\n" +
"    64 bins of size       8\n" +
"    32 bins of size      64\n" +
"    16 bins of size     512\n" +
"     8 bins of size    4096\n" +
"     4 bins of size   32768\n" +
"     2 bins of size  262144\n" +
"     1 bin  of size what's left\n" +
"\n" +
"    The bins top out around 1MB because we expect to service large\n" +
"    requests via mmap.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define NBINS              96\n" +
"#define NSMALLBINS         32\n" +
"#define SMALLBIN_WIDTH      8\n" +
"#define MIN_LARGE_SIZE    256\n" +
"\n" +
"#define in_smallbin_range(sz)  \\n" +
"  ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(sz) < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)MIN_LARGE_SIZE)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define smallbin_index(sz)     (((unsigned)(sz)) >> 3)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Compute index for size. We expect this to be inlined when\n" +
"  compiled with optimization, else not, which works out well.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"static int largebin_index(unsigned int sz) {\n" +
"  unsigned int  x = sz >> SMALLBIN_WIDTH;\n" +
"  unsigned int m;            /* bit position of highest set bit of m */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (x >= 0x10000) return NBINS-1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* On intel, use BSRL instruction to find highest bit */\n" +
"#if defined(__GNUC__) && defined(i386)\n" +
"\n" +
"  __asm__(\"bsrl %1,%0\\n\\t\"\n" +
"          : \"=r\" (m)\n" +
"          : \"g\"  (x));\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Based on branch-free nlz algorithm in chapter 5 of Henry\n" +
"      S. Warren Jr's book \"Hacker's Delight\".\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    unsigned int n = ((x - 0x100) >> 16) & 8;\n" +
"    x <<= n;\n" +
"    m = ((x - 0x1000) >> 16) & 4;\n" +
"    n += m;\n" +
"    x <<= m;\n" +
"    m = ((x - 0x4000) >> 16) & 2;\n" +
"    n += m;\n" +
"    x = (x << m) >> 14;\n" +
"    m = 13 - n + (x & ~(x>>1));\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  /* Use next 2 bits to create finer-granularity bins */\n" +
"  return NSMALLBINS + (m << 2) + ((sz >> (m + 6)) & 3);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#define bin_index(sz) \\n" +
" ((in_smallbin_range(sz)) ? smallbin_index(sz) : largebin_index(sz))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE is the chunk size corresponding to the\n" +
"  first bin that is maintained in sorted order. This must\n" +
"  be the smallest size corresponding to a given bin.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Normally, this should be MIN_LARGE_SIZE. But you can weaken\n" +
"  best fit guarantees to sometimes speed up malloc by increasing value.\n" +
"  Doing this means that malloc may choose a chunk that is\n" +
"  non-best-fitting by up to the width of the bin.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Some useful cutoff values:\n" +
"      512 - all bins sorted\n" +
"     2560 - leaves bins <=     64 bytes wide unsorted\n" +
"    12288 - leaves bins <=    512 bytes wide unsorted\n" +
"    65536 - leaves bins <=   4096 bytes wide unsorted\n" +
"   262144 - leaves bins <=  32768 bytes wide unsorted\n" +
"       -1 - no bins sorted (not recommended!)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE MIN_LARGE_SIZE\n" +
"/* #define FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE 65536 */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Unsorted chunks\n" +
"\n" +
"    All remainders from chunk splits, as well as all returned chunks,\n" +
"    are first placed in the \"unsorted\" bin. They are then placed\n" +
"    in regular bins after malloc gives them ONE chance to be used before\n" +
"    binning. So, basically, the unsorted_chunks list acts as a queue,\n" +
"    with chunks being placed on it in free (and malloc_consolidate),\n" +
"    and taken off (to be either used or placed in bins) in malloc.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The otherwise unindexable 1-bin is used to hold unsorted chunks. */\n" +
"#define unsorted_chunks(M)          (bin_at(M, 1))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Top\n" +
"\n" +
"    The top-most available chunk (i.e., the one bordering the end of\n" +
"    available memory) is treated specially. It is never included in\n" +
"    any bin, is used only if no other chunk is available, and is\n" +
"    released back to the system if it is very large (see\n" +
"    M_TRIM_THRESHOLD).  Because top initially\n" +
"    points to its own bin with initial zero size, thus forcing\n" +
"    extension on the first malloc request, we avoid having any special\n" +
"    code in malloc to check whether it even exists yet. But we still\n" +
"    need to do so when getting memory from system, so we make\n" +
"    initial_top treat the bin as a legal but unusable chunk during the\n" +
"    interval between initialization and the first call to\n" +
"    sYSMALLOc. (This is somewhat delicate, since it relies on\n" +
"    the 2 preceding words to be zero during this interval as well.)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Conveniently, the unsorted bin can be used as dummy top on first call */\n" +
"#define initial_top(M)              (unsorted_chunks(M))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Binmap\n" +
"\n" +
"    To help compensate for the large number of bins, a one-level index\n" +
"    structure is used for bin-by-bin searching.  `binmap' is a\n" +
"    bitvector recording whether bins are definitely empty so they can\n" +
"    be skipped over during during traversals.  The bits are NOT always\n" +
"    cleared as soon as bins are empty, but instead only\n" +
"    when they are noticed to be empty during traversal in malloc.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Conservatively use 32 bits per map word, even if on 64bit system */\n" +
"#define BINMAPSHIFT      5\n" +
"#define BITSPERMAP       (1U << BINMAPSHIFT)\n" +
"#define BINMAPSIZE       (NBINS / BITSPERMAP)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define idx2block(i)     ((i) >> BINMAPSHIFT)\n" +
"#define idx2bit(i)       ((1U << ((i) & ((1U << BINMAPSHIFT)-1))))\n" +
"\n" +
"#define mark_bin(m,i)    ((m)->binmap[idx2block(i)] |=  idx2bit(i))\n" +
"#define unmark_bin(m,i)  ((m)->binmap[idx2block(i)] &= ~(idx2bit(i)))\n" +
"#define get_binmap(m,i)  ((m)->binmap[idx2block(i)] &   idx2bit(i))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Fastbins\n" +
"\n" +
"    An array of lists holding recently freed small chunks.  Fastbins\n" +
"    are not doubly linked.  It is faster to single-link them, and\n" +
"    since chunks are never removed from the middles of these lists,\n" +
"    double linking is not necessary. Also, unlike regular bins, they\n" +
"    are not even processed in FIFO order (they use faster LIFO) since\n" +
"    ordering doesn't much matter in the transient contexts in which\n" +
"    fastbins are normally used.\n" +
"\n" +
"    Chunks in fastbins keep their inuse bit set, so they cannot\n" +
"    be consolidated with other free chunks. malloc_consolidate\n" +
"    releases all chunks in fastbins and consolidates them with\n" +
"    other free chunks.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"typedef struct malloc_chunk* mfastbinptr;\n" +
"\n" +
"/* offset 2 to use otherwise unindexable first 2 bins */\n" +
"#define fastbin_index(sz)        ((((unsigned int)(sz)) >> 3) - 2)\n" +
"\n" +
"/* The maximum fastbin request size we support */\n" +
"#define MAX_FAST_SIZE     80\n" +
"\n" +
"#define NFASTBINS  (fastbin_index(request2size(MAX_FAST_SIZE))+1)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  FASTBIN_CONSOLIDATION_THRESHOLD is the size of a chunk in free()\n" +
"  that triggers automatic consolidation of possibly-surrounding\n" +
"  fastbin chunks. This is a heuristic, so the exact value should not\n" +
"  matter too much. It is defined at half the default trim threshold as a\n" +
"  compromise heuristic to only attempt consolidation if it is likely\n" +
"  to lead to trimming. However, it is not dynamically tunable, since\n" +
"  consolidation reduces fragmentation surrounding loarge chunks even\n" +
"  if trimming is not used.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define FASTBIN_CONSOLIDATION_THRESHOLD  \\n" +
"  ((unsigned long)(DEFAULT_TRIM_THRESHOLD) >> 1)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Since the lowest 2 bits in max_fast don't matter in size comparisons,\n" +
"  they are used as flags.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ANYCHUNKS_BIT held in max_fast indicates that there may be any\n" +
"  freed chunks at all. It is set true when entering a chunk into any\n" +
"  bin.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define ANYCHUNKS_BIT        (1U)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define have_anychunks(M)     (((M)->max_fast &  ANYCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"#define set_anychunks(M)      ((M)->max_fast |=  ANYCHUNKS_BIT)\n" +
"#define clear_anychunks(M)    ((M)->max_fast &= ~ANYCHUNKS_BIT)\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  FASTCHUNKS_BIT held in max_fast indicates that there are probably\n" +
"  some fastbin chunks. It is set true on entering a chunk into any\n" +
"  fastbin, and cleared only in malloc_consolidate.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n") +
(
"#define FASTCHUNKS_BIT        (2U)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define have_fastchunks(M)   (((M)->max_fast &  FASTCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"#define set_fastchunks(M)    ((M)->max_fast |=  (FASTCHUNKS_BIT|ANYCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"#define clear_fastchunks(M)  ((M)->max_fast &= ~(FASTCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Set value of max_fast.\n" +
"   Use impossibly small value if 0.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define set_max_fast(M, s) \\n" +
"  (M)->max_fast = (((s) == 0)? SMALLBIN_WIDTH: request2size(s)) | \\n" +
"  ((M)->max_fast &  (FASTCHUNKS_BIT|ANYCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"\n" +
"#define get_max_fast(M) \\n" +
"  ((M)->max_fast & ~(FASTCHUNKS_BIT | ANYCHUNKS_BIT))\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  morecore_properties is a status word holding dynamically discovered\n" +
"  or controlled properties of the morecore function\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS_BIT  (1U)\n" +
"\n" +
"#define contiguous(M) \\n" +
"        (((M)->morecore_properties &  MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS_BIT))\n" +
"#define noncontiguous(M) \\n" +
"        (((M)->morecore_properties &  MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS_BIT) == 0)\n" +
"#define set_contiguous(M) \\n" +
"        ((M)->morecore_properties |=  MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS_BIT)\n" +
"#define set_noncontiguous(M) \\n" +
"        ((M)->morecore_properties &= ~MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS_BIT)\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   ----------- Internal state representation and initialization -----------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"struct malloc_state {\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* The maximum chunk size to be eligible for fastbin */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  max_fast;   /* low 2 bits used as flags */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Fastbins */\n" +
"  mfastbinptr      fastbins[NFASTBINS];\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Base of the topmost chunk -- not otherwise kept in a bin */\n" +
"  mchunkptr        top;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* The remainder from the most recent split of a small request */\n" +
"  mchunkptr        last_remainder;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Normal bins packed as described above */\n" +
"  mchunkptr        bins[NBINS * 2];\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Bitmap of bins. Trailing zero map handles cases of largest binned size */\n" +
"  unsigned int     binmap[BINMAPSIZE+1];\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Tunable parameters */\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T     trim_threshold;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  top_pad;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  mmap_threshold;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Memory map support */\n" +
"  int              n_mmaps;\n" +
"  int              n_mmaps_max;\n" +
"  int              max_n_mmaps;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Cache malloc_getpagesize */\n" +
"  unsigned int     pagesize;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Track properties of MORECORE */\n" +
"  unsigned int     morecore_properties;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Statistics */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  mmapped_mem;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  sbrked_mem;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  max_sbrked_mem;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  max_mmapped_mem;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  max_total_mem;\n" +
"};\n" +
"\n" +
"typedef struct malloc_state *mstate;\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   There is exactly one instance of this struct in this malloc.\n" +
"   If you are adapting this malloc in a way that does NOT use a static\n" +
"   malloc_state, you MUST explicitly zero-fill it before using. This\n" +
"   malloc relies on the property that malloc_state is initialized to\n" +
"   all zeroes (as is true of C statics).\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"static struct malloc_state av_;  /* never directly referenced */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   All uses of av_ are via get_malloc_state().\n" +
"   At most one \"call\" to get_malloc_state is made per invocation of\n" +
"   the public versions of malloc and free, but other routines\n" +
"   that in turn invoke malloc and/or free may call more then once.\n" +
"   Also, it is called in check* routines if DEBUG is set.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#define get_malloc_state() (&(av_))\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Initialize a malloc_state struct.\n" +
"\n" +
"  This is called only from within malloc_consolidate, which needs\n" +
"  be called in the same contexts anyway.  It is never called directly\n" +
"  outside of malloc_consolidate because some optimizing compilers try\n" +
"  to inline it at all call points, which turns out not to be an\n" +
"  optimization at all. (Inlining it in malloc_consolidate is fine though.)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void malloc_init_state(mstate av)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void malloc_init_state(av) mstate av;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  int     i;\n" +
"  mbinptr bin;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Establish circular links for normal bins */\n" +
"  for (i = 1; i < NBINS; ++i) {\n" +
"    bin = bin_at(av,i);\n" +
"    bin->fd = bin->bk = bin;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  av->top_pad        = DEFAULT_TOP_PAD;\n" +
"  av->n_mmaps_max    = DEFAULT_MMAP_MAX;\n" +
"  av->mmap_threshold = DEFAULT_MMAP_THRESHOLD;\n" +
"  av->trim_threshold = DEFAULT_TRIM_THRESHOLD;\n" +
"\n" +
"#if MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS\n" +
"  set_contiguous(av);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"  set_noncontiguous(av);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"  set_max_fast(av, DEFAULT_MXFAST);\n" +
"\n" +
"  av->top            = initial_top(av);\n" +
"  av->pagesize       = malloc_getpagesize;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"   Other internal utilities operating on mstates\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n") +
(
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static Void_t*  sYSMALLOc(INTERNAL_SIZE_T, mstate);\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM\n" +
"static int      sYSTRIm(size_t, mstate);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"static void     malloc_consolidate(mstate);\n" +
"static Void_t** iALLOc(size_t, size_t*, int, Void_t**);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static Void_t*  sYSMALLOc();\n" +
"static int      sYSTRIm();\n" +
"static void     malloc_consolidate();\n" +
"static Void_t** iALLOc();\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Debugging support\n" +
"\n" +
"  These routines make a number of assertions about the states\n" +
"  of data structures that should be true at all times. If any\n" +
"  are not true, it's very likely that a user program has somehow\n" +
"  trashed memory. (It's also possible that there is a coding error\n" +
"  in malloc. In which case, please report it!)\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if ! DEBUG\n" +
"\n" +
"#define check_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_free_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_inuse_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_remalloced_chunk(P,N)\n" +
"#define check_malloced_chunk(P,N)\n" +
"#define check_malloc_state()\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"#define check_chunk(P)              do_check_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_free_chunk(P)         do_check_free_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_inuse_chunk(P)        do_check_inuse_chunk(P)\n" +
"#define check_remalloced_chunk(P,N) do_check_remalloced_chunk(P,N)\n" +
"#define check_malloced_chunk(P,N)   do_check_malloced_chunk(P,N)\n" +
"#define check_malloc_state()        do_check_malloc_state()\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of all chunks\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void do_check_chunk(mchunkptr p)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void do_check_chunk(p) mchunkptr p;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  sz = chunksize(p);\n" +
"  /* min and max possible addresses assuming contiguous allocation */\n" +
"  char* max_address = (char*)(av->top) + chunksize(av->top);\n" +
"  char* min_address = max_address - av->sbrked_mem;\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (!chunk_is_mmapped(p)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Has legal address ... */\n" +
"    if (p != av->top) {\n" +
"      if (contiguous(av)) {\n" +
"        assert(((char*)p) >= min_address);\n" +
"        assert(((char*)p + sz) <= ((char*)(av->top)));\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      /* top size is always at least MINSIZE */\n" +
"      assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(sz) >= MINSIZE);\n" +
"      /* top predecessor always marked inuse */\n" +
"      assert(prev_inuse(p));\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else {\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"    /* address is outside main heap  */\n" +
"    if (contiguous(av) && av->top != initial_top(av)) {\n" +
"      assert(((char*)p) < min_address || ((char*)p) > max_address);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    /* chunk is page-aligned */\n" +
"    assert(((p->prev_size + sz) & (av->pagesize-1)) == 0);\n" +
"    /* mem is aligned */\n" +
"    assert(aligned_OK(chunk2mem(p)));\n" +
"#else\n" +
"    /* force an appropriate assert violation if debug set */\n" +
"    assert(!chunk_is_mmapped(p));\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of free chunks\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void do_check_free_chunk(mchunkptr p)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void do_check_free_chunk(p) mchunkptr p;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T sz = p->size & ~PREV_INUSE;\n" +
"  mchunkptr next = chunk_at_offset(p, sz);\n" +
"\n" +
"  do_check_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Chunk must claim to be free ... */\n" +
"  assert(!inuse(p));\n" +
"  assert (!chunk_is_mmapped(p));\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Unless a special marker, must have OK fields */\n" +
"  if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(sz) >= MINSIZE)\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    assert((sz & MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK) == 0);\n" +
"    assert(aligned_OK(chunk2mem(p)));\n" +
"    /* ... matching footer field */\n" +
"    assert(next->prev_size == sz);\n" +
"    /* ... and is fully consolidated */\n" +
"    assert(prev_inuse(p));\n" +
"    assert (next == av->top || inuse(next));\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* ... and has minimally sane links */\n" +
"    assert(p->fd->bk == p);\n" +
"    assert(p->bk->fd == p);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else /* markers are always of size SIZE_SZ */\n" +
"    assert(sz == SIZE_SZ);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of inuse chunks\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void do_check_inuse_chunk(mchunkptr p)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void do_check_inuse_chunk(p) mchunkptr p;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  mchunkptr next;\n" +
"  do_check_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (chunk_is_mmapped(p))\n" +
"    return; /* mmapped chunks have no next/prev */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Check whether it claims to be in use ... */\n" +
"  assert(inuse(p));\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  next = next_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* ... and is surrounded by OK chunks.\n" +
"    Since more things can be checked with free chunks than inuse ones,\n" +
"    if an inuse chunk borders them and debug is on, it's worth doing them.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"  if (!prev_inuse(p))  {\n" +
"    /* Note that we cannot even look at prev unless it is not inuse */\n" +
"    mchunkptr prv = prev_chunk(p);\n" +
"    assert(next_chunk(prv) == p);\n" +
"    do_check_free_chunk(prv);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (next == av->top) {\n" +
"    assert(prev_inuse(next));\n" +
"    assert(chunksize(next) >= MINSIZE);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else if (!inuse(next))\n" +
"    do_check_free_chunk(next);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of chunks recycled from fastbins\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void do_check_remalloced_chunk(mchunkptr p, INTERNAL_SIZE_T s)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void do_check_remalloced_chunk(p, s) mchunkptr p; INTERNAL_SIZE_T s;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T sz = p->size & ~PREV_INUSE;\n" +
"\n" +
"  do_check_inuse_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Legal size ... */\n" +
"  assert((sz & MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK) == 0);\n" +
"  assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(sz) >= MINSIZE);\n" +
"  /* ... and alignment */\n" +
"  assert(aligned_OK(chunk2mem(p)));\n" +
"  /* chunk is less than MINSIZE more than request */\n" +
"  assert((long)(sz) - (long)(s) >= 0);\n" +
"  assert((long)(sz) - (long)(s + MINSIZE) < 0);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of nonrecycled chunks at the point they are malloced\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void do_check_malloced_chunk(mchunkptr p, INTERNAL_SIZE_T s)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void do_check_malloced_chunk(p, s) mchunkptr p; INTERNAL_SIZE_T s;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  /* same as recycled case ... */\n" +
"  do_check_remalloced_chunk(p, s);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    ... plus,  must obey implementation invariant that prev_inuse is\n" +
"    always true of any allocated chunk; i.e., that each allocated\n" +
"    chunk borders either a previously allocated and still in-use\n" +
"    chunk, or the base of its memory arena. This is ensured\n" +
"    by making all allocations from the the `lowest' part of any found\n" +
"    chunk.  This does not necessarily hold however for chunks\n" +
"    recycled via fastbins.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert(prev_inuse(p));\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  Properties of malloc_state.\n" +
"\n" +
"  This may be useful for debugging malloc, as well as detecting user\n" +
"  programmer errors that somehow write into malloc_state.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If you are extending or experimenting with this malloc, you can\n" +
"  probably figure out how to hack this routine to print out or\n" +
"  display chunk addresses, sizes, bins, and other instrumentation.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"static void do_check_malloc_state()\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  unsigned int i;\n" +
"  mchunkptr p;\n" +
"  mchunkptr q;\n" +
"  mbinptr b;\n" +
"  unsigned int binbit;\n" +
"  int empty;\n" +
"  unsigned int idx;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  total = 0;\n" +
"  int max_fast_bin;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* internal size_t must be no wider than pointer type */\n" +
"  assert(sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T) <= sizeof(char*));\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* alignment is a power of 2 */\n" +
"  assert((MALLOC_ALIGNMENT & (MALLOC_ALIGNMENT-1)) == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* cannot run remaining checks until fully initialized */\n" +
"  if (av->top == 0 || av->top == initial_top(av))\n" +
"    return;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* pagesize is a power of 2 */\n" +
"  assert((av->pagesize & (av->pagesize-1)) == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* properties of fastbins */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* max_fast is in allowed range */\n" +
"  assert(get_max_fast(av) <= request2size(MAX_FAST_SIZE));\n" +
"\n" +
"  max_fast_bin = fastbin_index(av->max_fast);\n" +
"\n" +
"  for (i = 0; i < NFASTBINS; ++i) {\n" +
"    p = av->fastbins[i];\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* all bins past max_fast are empty */\n" +
"    if (i > max_fast_bin)\n" +
"      assert(p == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"    while (p != 0) {\n" +
"      /* each chunk claims to be inuse */\n" +
"      do_check_inuse_chunk(p);\n" +
"      total += chunksize(p);\n" +
"      /* chunk belongs in this bin */\n" +
"      assert(fastbin_index(chunksize(p)) == i);\n" +
"      p = p->fd;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (total != 0)\n" +
"    assert(have_fastchunks(av));\n" +
"  else if (!have_fastchunks(av))\n" +
"    assert(total == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* check normal bins */\n" +
"  for (i = 1; i < NBINS; ++i) {\n" +
"    b = bin_at(av,i);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* binmap is accurate (except for bin 1 == unsorted_chunks) */\n" +
"    if (i >= 2) {\n" +
"      binbit = get_binmap(av,i);\n" +
"      empty = last(b) == b;\n" +
"      if (!binbit)\n" +
"        assert(empty);\n" +
"      else if (!empty)\n" +
"        assert(binbit);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n") +
(
"    for (p = last(b); p != b; p = p->bk) {\n" +
"      /* each chunk claims to be free */\n" +
"      do_check_free_chunk(p);\n" +
"      size = chunksize(p);\n" +
"      total += size;\n" +
"      if (i >= 2) {\n" +
"        /* chunk belongs in bin */\n" +
"        idx = bin_index(size);\n" +
"        assert(idx == i);\n" +
"        /* lists are sorted */\n" +
"        if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T) size >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE)) {\n" +
"          assert(p->bk == b ||\n" +
"                 (CHUNK_SIZE_T)chunksize(p->bk) >=\n" +
"                 (CHUNK_SIZE_T)chunksize(p));\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"      /* chunk is followed by a legal chain of inuse chunks */\n" +
"      for (q = next_chunk(p);\n" +
"           (q != av->top && inuse(q) &&\n" +
"             (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(chunksize(q)) >= MINSIZE);\n" +
"           q = next_chunk(q))\n" +
"        do_check_inuse_chunk(q);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* top chunk is OK */\n" +
"  check_chunk(av->top);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* sanity checks for statistics */\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert(total <= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_total_mem));\n" +
"  assert(av->n_mmaps >= 0);\n" +
"  assert(av->n_mmaps <= av->max_n_mmaps);\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->sbrked_mem) <=\n" +
"         (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_sbrked_mem));\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->mmapped_mem) <=\n" +
"         (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_mmapped_mem));\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_total_mem) >=\n" +
"         (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->mmapped_mem) + (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->sbrked_mem));\n" +
"}\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/* ----------- Routines dealing with system allocation -------------- */\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  sysmalloc handles malloc cases requiring more memory from the system.\n" +
"  On entry, it is assumed that av->top does not have enough\n" +
"  space to service request for nb bytes, thus requiring that av->top\n" +
"  be extended or replaced.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static Void_t* sYSMALLOc(INTERNAL_SIZE_T nb, mstate av)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static Void_t* sYSMALLOc(nb, av) INTERNAL_SIZE_T nb; mstate av;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mchunkptr       old_top;        /* incoming value of av->top */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T old_size;       /* its size */\n" +
"  char*           old_end;        /* its end address */\n" +
"\n" +
"  long            size;           /* arg to first MORECORE or mmap call */\n" +
"  char*           brk;            /* return value from MORECORE */\n" +
"\n" +
"  long            correction;     /* arg to 2nd MORECORE call */\n" +
"  char*           snd_brk;        /* 2nd return val */\n" +
"\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T front_misalign; /* unusable bytes at front of new space */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T end_misalign;   /* partial page left at end of new space */\n" +
"  char*           aligned_brk;    /* aligned offset into brk */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr       p;              /* the allocated/returned chunk */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       remainder;      /* remainder from allocation */\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T    remainder_size; /* its size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T    sum;            /* for updating stats */\n" +
"\n" +
"  size_t          pagemask  = av->pagesize - 1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If there is space available in fastbins, consolidate and retry\n" +
"    malloc from scratch rather than getting memory from system.  This\n" +
"    can occur only if nb is in smallbin range so we didn't consolidate\n" +
"    upon entry to malloc. It is much easier to handle this case here\n" +
"    than in malloc proper.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (have_fastchunks(av)) {\n" +
"    assert(in_smallbin_range(nb));\n" +
"    malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"    return mALLOc(nb - MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If have mmap, and the request size meets the mmap threshold, and\n" +
"    the system supports mmap, and there are few enough currently\n" +
"    allocated mmapped regions, try to directly map this request\n" +
"    rather than expanding top.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->mmap_threshold) &&\n" +
"      (av->n_mmaps < av->n_mmaps_max)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    char* mm;             /* return value from mmap call*/\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Round up size to nearest page.  For mmapped chunks, the overhead\n" +
"      is one SIZE_SZ unit larger than for normal chunks, because there\n" +
"      is no following chunk whose prev_size field could be used.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"    size = (nb + SIZE_SZ + MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK + pagemask) & ~pagemask;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Don't try if size wraps around 0 */\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      mm = (char*)(MMAP(0, size, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE));\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (mm != (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"          The offset to the start of the mmapped region is stored\n" +
"          in the prev_size field of the chunk. This allows us to adjust\n" +
"          returned start address to meet alignment requirements here\n" +
"          and in memalign(), and still be able to compute proper\n" +
"          address argument for later munmap in free() and realloc().\n" +
"        */\n" +
"\n" +
"        front_misalign = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T)chunk2mem(mm) & MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK;\n" +
"        if (front_misalign > 0) {\n" +
"          correction = MALLOC_ALIGNMENT - front_misalign;\n" +
"          p = (mchunkptr)(mm + correction);\n" +
"          p->prev_size = correction;\n" +
"          set_head(p, (size - correction) |IS_MMAPPED);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        else {\n" +
"          p = (mchunkptr)mm;\n" +
"          p->prev_size = 0;\n" +
"          set_head(p, size|IS_MMAPPED);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* update statistics */\n" +
"\n" +
"        if (++av->n_mmaps > av->max_n_mmaps)\n" +
"          av->max_n_mmaps = av->n_mmaps;\n" +
"\n") +
(
"        sum = av->mmapped_mem += size;\n" +
"        if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_mmapped_mem))\n" +
"          av->max_mmapped_mem = sum;\n" +
"        sum += av->sbrked_mem;\n" +
"        if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_total_mem))\n" +
"          av->max_total_mem = sum;\n" +
"\n" +
"        check_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"        return chunk2mem(p);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Record incoming configuration of top */\n" +
"\n" +
"  old_top  = av->top;\n" +
"  old_size = chunksize(old_top);\n" +
"  old_end  = (char*)(chunk_at_offset(old_top, old_size));\n" +
"\n" +
"  brk = snd_brk = (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"     If not the first time through, we require old_size to be\n" +
"     at least MINSIZE and to have prev_inuse set.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  assert((old_top == initial_top(av) && old_size == 0) ||\n" +
"         ((CHUNK_SIZE_T) (old_size) >= MINSIZE &&\n" +
"          prev_inuse(old_top)));\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Precondition: not enough current space to satisfy nb request */\n" +
"  assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(old_size) < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE));\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Precondition: all fastbins are consolidated */\n" +
"  assert(!have_fastchunks(av));\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Request enough space for nb + pad + overhead */\n" +
"\n" +
"  size = nb + av->top_pad + MINSIZE;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If contiguous, we can subtract out existing space that we hope to\n" +
"    combine with new space. We add it back later only if\n" +
"    we don't actually get contiguous space.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (contiguous(av))\n" +
"    size -= old_size;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Round to a multiple of page size.\n" +
"    If MORECORE is not contiguous, this ensures that we only call it\n" +
"    with whole-page arguments.  And if MORECORE is contiguous and\n" +
"    this is not first time through, this preserves page-alignment of\n" +
"    previous calls. Otherwise, we correct to page-align below.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  size = (size + pagemask) & ~pagemask;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Don't try to call MORECORE if argument is so big as to appear\n" +
"    negative. Note that since mmap takes size_t arg, it may succeed\n" +
"    below even if we cannot call MORECORE.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (size > 0)\n" +
"    brk = (char*)(MORECORE(size));\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If have mmap, try using it as a backup when MORECORE fails or\n" +
"    cannot be used. This is worth doing on systems that have \"holes\" in\n" +
"    address space, so sbrk cannot extend to give contiguous space, but\n" +
"    space is available elsewhere.  Note that we ignore mmap max count\n" +
"    and threshold limits, since the space will not be used as a\n" +
"    segregated mmap region.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"  if (brk == (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Cannot merge with old top, so add its size back in */\n" +
"    if (contiguous(av))\n" +
"      size = (size + old_size + pagemask) & ~pagemask;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* If we are relying on mmap as backup, then use larger units */\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE))\n" +
"      size = MMAP_AS_MORECORE_SIZE;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Don't try if size wraps around 0 */\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      brk = (char*)(MMAP(0, size, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE));\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (brk != (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* We do not need, and cannot use, another sbrk call to find end */\n" +
"        snd_brk = brk + size;\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"           Record that we no longer have a contiguous sbrk region.\n" +
"           After the first time mmap is used as backup, we do not\n" +
"           ever rely on contiguous space since this could incorrectly\n" +
"           bridge regions.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"        set_noncontiguous(av);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (brk != (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"    av->sbrked_mem += size;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      If MORECORE extends previous space, we can likewise extend top size.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (brk == old_end && snd_brk == (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"      set_head(old_top, (size + old_size) | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Otherwise, make adjustments:\n" +
"\n" +
"      * If the first time through or noncontiguous, we need to call sbrk\n" +
"        just to find out where the end of memory lies.\n" +
"\n" +
"      * We need to ensure that all returned chunks from malloc will meet\n" +
"        MALLOC_ALIGNMENT\n" +
"\n" +
"      * If there was an intervening foreign sbrk, we need to adjust sbrk\n" +
"        request size to account for fact that we will not be able to\n" +
"        combine new space with existing space in old_top.\n" +
"\n" +
"      * Almost all systems internally allocate whole pages at a time, in\n" +
"        which case we might as well use the whole last page of request.\n" +
"        So we allocate enough more memory to hit a page boundary now,\n" +
"        which in turn causes future contiguous calls to page-align.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      front_misalign = 0;\n" +
"      end_misalign = 0;\n" +
"      correction = 0;\n" +
"      aligned_brk = brk;\n" +
"\n") +
(
"      /*\n" +
"        If MORECORE returns an address lower than we have seen before,\n" +
"        we know it isn't really contiguous.  This and some subsequent\n" +
"        checks help cope with non-conforming MORECORE functions and\n" +
"        the presence of \"foreign\" calls to MORECORE from outside of\n" +
"        malloc or by other threads.  We cannot guarantee to detect\n" +
"        these in all cases, but cope with the ones we do detect.\n" +
"      */\n" +
"      if (contiguous(av) && old_size != 0 && brk < old_end) {\n" +
"        set_noncontiguous(av);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* handle contiguous cases */\n" +
"      if (contiguous(av)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"           We can tolerate forward non-contiguities here (usually due\n" +
"           to foreign calls) but treat them as part of our space for\n" +
"           stats reporting.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"        if (old_size != 0)\n" +
"          av->sbrked_mem += brk - old_end;\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* Guarantee alignment of first new chunk made from this space */\n" +
"\n" +
"        front_misalign = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T)chunk2mem(brk) & MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK;\n" +
"        if (front_misalign > 0) {\n" +
"\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"            Skip over some bytes to arrive at an aligned position.\n" +
"            We don't need to specially mark these wasted front bytes.\n" +
"            They will never be accessed anyway because\n" +
"            prev_inuse of av->top (and any chunk created from its start)\n" +
"            is always true after initialization.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"\n" +
"          correction = MALLOC_ALIGNMENT - front_misalign;\n" +
"          aligned_brk += correction;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"          If this isn't adjacent to existing space, then we will not\n" +
"          be able to merge with old_top space, so must add to 2nd request.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"\n" +
"        correction += old_size;\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* Extend the end address to hit a page boundary */\n" +
"        end_misalign = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T)(brk + size + correction);\n" +
"        correction += ((end_misalign + pagemask) & ~pagemask) - end_misalign;\n" +
"\n" +
"        assert(correction >= 0);\n" +
"        snd_brk = (char*)(MORECORE(correction));\n" +
"\n" +
"        if (snd_brk == (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"            If can't allocate correction, try to at least find out current\n" +
"            brk.  It might be enough to proceed without failing.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"          correction = 0;\n" +
"          snd_brk = (char*)(MORECORE(0));\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        else if (snd_brk < brk) {\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"            If the second call gives noncontiguous space even though\n" +
"            it says it won't, the only course of action is to ignore\n" +
"            results of second call, and conservatively estimate where\n" +
"            the first call left us. Also set noncontiguous, so this\n" +
"            won't happen again, leaving at most one hole.\n" +
"\n" +
"            Note that this check is intrinsically incomplete.  Because\n" +
"            MORECORE is allowed to give more space than we ask for,\n" +
"            there is no reliable way to detect a noncontiguity\n" +
"            producing a forward gap for the second call.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"          snd_brk = brk + size;\n" +
"          correction = 0;\n" +
"          set_noncontiguous(av);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* handle non-contiguous cases */\n" +
"      else {\n" +
"        /* MORECORE/mmap must correctly align */\n" +
"        assert(aligned_OK(chunk2mem(brk)));\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* Find out current end of memory */\n" +
"        if (snd_brk == (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"          snd_brk = (char*)(MORECORE(0));\n" +
"          av->sbrked_mem += snd_brk - brk - size;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* Adjust top based on results of second sbrk */\n" +
"      if (snd_brk != (char*)(MORECORE_FAILURE)) {\n" +
"        av->top = (mchunkptr)aligned_brk;\n" +
"        set_head(av->top, (snd_brk - aligned_brk + correction) | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        av->sbrked_mem += correction;\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"          If not the first time through, we either have a\n" +
"          gap due to foreign sbrk or a non-contiguous region.  Insert a\n" +
"          double fencepost at old_top to prevent consolidation with space\n" +
"          we don't own. These fenceposts are artificial chunks that are\n" +
"          marked as inuse and are in any case too small to use.  We need\n" +
"          two to make sizes and alignments work out.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"\n" +
"        if (old_size != 0) {\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"             Shrink old_top to insert fenceposts, keeping size a\n" +
"             multiple of MALLOC_ALIGNMENT. We know there is at least\n" +
"             enough space in old_top to do this.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"          old_size = (old_size - 3*SIZE_SZ) & ~MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK;\n" +
"          set_head(old_top, old_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"            Note that the following assignments completely overwrite\n" +
"            old_top when old_size was previously MINSIZE.  This is\n" +
"            intentional. We need the fencepost, even if old_top otherwise gets\n" +
"            lost.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"          chunk_at_offset(old_top, old_size          )->size =\n" +
"            SIZE_SZ|PREV_INUSE;\n" +
"\n" +
"          chunk_at_offset(old_top, old_size + SIZE_SZ)->size =\n" +
"            SIZE_SZ|PREV_INUSE;\n" +
"\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"             If possible, release the rest, suppressing trimming.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"          if (old_size >= MINSIZE) {\n" +
"            INTERNAL_SIZE_T tt = av->trim_threshold;\n" +
"            av->trim_threshold = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T)(-1);\n" +
"            fREe(chunk2mem(old_top));\n" +
"            av->trim_threshold = tt;\n" +
"          }\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Update statistics */\n" +
"    sum = av->sbrked_mem;\n" +
"    if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_sbrked_mem))\n" +
"      av->max_sbrked_mem = sum;\n" +
"\n") +
(
"    sum += av->mmapped_mem;\n" +
"    if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_total_mem))\n" +
"      av->max_total_mem = sum;\n" +
"\n" +
"    check_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* finally, do the allocation */\n" +
"\n" +
"    p = av->top;\n" +
"    size = chunksize(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* check that one of the above allocation paths succeeded */\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE)) {\n" +
"      remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"      remainder = chunk_at_offset(p, nb);\n" +
"      av->top = remainder;\n" +
"      set_head(p, nb | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      check_malloced_chunk(p, nb);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(p);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* catch all failure paths */\n" +
"  MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION;\n" +
"  return 0;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  sYSTRIm is an inverse of sorts to sYSMALLOc.  It gives memory back\n" +
"  to the system (via negative arguments to sbrk) if there is unused\n" +
"  memory at the `high' end of the malloc pool. It is called\n" +
"  automatically by free() when top space exceeds the trim\n" +
"  threshold. It is also called by the public malloc_trim routine.  It\n" +
"  returns 1 if it actually released any memory, else 0.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static int sYSTRIm(size_t pad, mstate av)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static int sYSTRIm(pad, av) size_t pad; mstate av;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  long  top_size;        /* Amount of top-most memory */\n" +
"  long  extra;           /* Amount to release */\n" +
"  long  released;        /* Amount actually released */\n" +
"  char* current_brk;     /* address returned by pre-check sbrk call */\n" +
"  char* new_brk;         /* address returned by post-check sbrk call */\n" +
"  size_t pagesz;\n" +
"\n" +
"  pagesz = av->pagesize;\n" +
"  top_size = chunksize(av->top);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Release in pagesize units, keeping at least one page */\n" +
"  extra = ((top_size - pad - MINSIZE + (pagesz-1)) / pagesz - 1) * pagesz;\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (extra > 0) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Only proceed if end of memory is where we last set it.\n" +
"      This avoids problems if there were foreign sbrk calls.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"    current_brk = (char*)(MORECORE(0));\n" +
"    if (current_brk == (char*)(av->top) + top_size) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      /*\n" +
"        Attempt to release memory. We ignore MORECORE return value,\n" +
"        and instead call again to find out where new end of memory is.\n" +
"        This avoids problems if first call releases less than we asked,\n" +
"        of if failure somehow altered brk value. (We could still\n" +
"        encounter problems if it altered brk in some very bad way,\n" +
"        but the only thing we can do is adjust anyway, which will cause\n" +
"        some downstream failure.)\n" +
"      */\n" +
"\n" +
"      MORECORE(-extra);\n" +
"      new_brk = (char*)(MORECORE(0));\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (new_brk != (char*)MORECORE_FAILURE) {\n" +
"        released = (long)(current_brk - new_brk);\n" +
"\n" +
"        if (released != 0) {\n" +
"          /* Success. Adjust top. */\n" +
"          av->sbrked_mem -= released;\n" +
"          set_head(av->top, (top_size - released) | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"          check_malloc_state();\n" +
"          return 1;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return 0;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ malloc ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* mALLOc(size_t bytes)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"  Void_t* mALLOc(bytes) size_t bytes;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T nb;               /* normalized request size */\n" +
"  unsigned int    idx;              /* associated bin index */\n" +
"  mbinptr         bin;              /* associated bin */\n" +
"  mfastbinptr*    fb;               /* associated fastbin */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr       victim;           /* inspected/selected chunk */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;             /* its size */\n" +
"  int             victim_index;     /* its bin index */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr       remainder;        /* remainder from a split */\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T    remainder_size;   /* its size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  unsigned int    block;            /* bit map traverser */\n" +
"  unsigned int    bit;              /* bit map traverser */\n" +
"  unsigned int    map;              /* current word of binmap */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr       fwd;              /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       bck;              /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Convert request size to internal form by adding SIZE_SZ bytes\n" +
"    overhead plus possibly more to obtain necessary alignment and/or\n" +
"    to obtain a size of at least MINSIZE, the smallest allocatable\n" +
"    size. Also, checked_request2size traps (returning 0) request sizes\n" +
"    that are so large that they wrap around zero when padded and\n" +
"    aligned.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  checked_request2size(bytes, nb);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Bypass search if no frees yet\n" +
"   */\n" +
"  if (!have_anychunks(av)) {\n" +
"    if (av->max_fast == 0) /* initialization check */\n" +
"      malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"    goto use_top;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  /*\n" +
"    If the size qualifies as a fastbin, first check corresponding bin.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb) <= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_fast)) {\n" +
"    fb = &(av->fastbins[(fastbin_index(nb))]);\n" +
"    if ( (victim = *fb) != 0) {\n" +
"      *fb = victim->fd;\n" +
"      check_remalloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If a small request, check regular bin.  Since these \"smallbins\"\n" +
"    hold one size each, no searching within bins is necessary.\n" +
"    (For a large request, we need to wait until unsorted chunks are\n" +
"    processed to find best fit. But for small ones, fits are exact\n" +
"    anyway, so we can check now, which is faster.)\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (in_smallbin_range(nb)) {\n" +
"    idx = smallbin_index(nb);\n" +
"    bin = bin_at(av,idx);\n" +
"\n" +
"    if ( (victim = last(bin)) != bin) {\n" +
"      bck = victim->bk;\n" +
"      set_inuse_bit_at_offset(victim, nb);\n" +
"      bin->bk = bck;\n" +
"      bck->fd = bin;\n" +
"\n" +
"      check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"     If this is a large request, consolidate fastbins before continuing.\n" +
"     While it might look excessive to kill all fastbins before\n" +
"     even seeing if there is space available, this avoids\n" +
"     fragmentation problems normally associated with fastbins.\n" +
"     Also, in practice, programs tend to have runs of either small or\n" +
"     large requests, but less often mixtures, so consolidation is not\n" +
"     invoked all that often in most programs. And the programs that\n" +
"     it is called frequently in otherwise tend to fragment.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  else {\n" +
"    idx = largebin_index(nb);\n" +
"    if (have_fastchunks(av))\n" +
"      malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Process recently freed or remaindered chunks, taking one only if\n" +
"    it is exact fit, or, if this a small request, the chunk is remainder from\n" +
"    the most recent non-exact fit.  Place other traversed chunks in\n" +
"    bins.  Note that this step is the only place in any routine where\n" +
"    chunks are placed in bins.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  while ( (victim = unsorted_chunks(av)->bk) != unsorted_chunks(av)) {\n" +
"    bck = victim->bk;\n" +
"    size = chunksize(victim);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"       If a small request, try to use last remainder if it is the\n" +
"       only chunk in unsorted bin.  This helps promote locality for\n" +
"       runs of consecutive small requests. This is the only\n" +
"       exception to best-fit, and applies only when there is\n" +
"       no exact fit for a small chunk.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (in_smallbin_range(nb) &&\n" +
"        bck == unsorted_chunks(av) &&\n" +
"        victim == av->last_remainder &&\n" +
"        (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* split and reattach remainder */\n" +
"      remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"      remainder = chunk_at_offset(victim, nb);\n" +
"      unsorted_chunks(av)->bk = unsorted_chunks(av)->fd = remainder;\n" +
"      av->last_remainder = remainder;\n" +
"      remainder->bk = remainder->fd = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"      set_head(victim, nb | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      set_foot(remainder, remainder_size);\n" +
"\n" +
"      check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* remove from unsorted list */\n" +
"    unsorted_chunks(av)->bk = bck;\n" +
"    bck->fd = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Take now instead of binning if exact fit */\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (size == nb) {\n" +
"      set_inuse_bit_at_offset(victim, size);\n" +
"      check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* place chunk in bin */\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (in_smallbin_range(size)) {\n" +
"      victim_index = smallbin_index(size);\n" +
"      bck = bin_at(av, victim_index);\n" +
"      fwd = bck->fd;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      victim_index = largebin_index(size);\n" +
"      bck = bin_at(av, victim_index);\n" +
"      fwd = bck->fd;\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (fwd != bck) {\n" +
"        /* if smaller than smallest, place first */\n" +
"        if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(bck->bk->size)) {\n" +
"          fwd = bck;\n" +
"          bck = bck->bk;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        else if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >=\n" +
"                 (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"          /* maintain large bins in sorted order */\n" +
"          size |= PREV_INUSE; /* Or with inuse bit to speed comparisons */\n" +
"          while ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(fwd->size))\n" +
"            fwd = fwd->fd;\n" +
"          bck = fwd->bk;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    mark_bin(av, victim_index);\n" +
"    victim->bk = bck;\n" +
"    victim->fd = fwd;\n" +
"    fwd->bk = victim;\n" +
"    bck->fd = victim;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If a large request, scan through the chunks of current bin to\n" +
"    find one that fits.  (This will be the smallest that fits unless\n" +
"    FIRST_SORTED_BIN_SIZE has been changed from default.)  This is\n" +
"    the only step where an unbounded number of chunks might be\n" +
"    scanned without doing anything useful with them. However the\n" +
"    lists tend to be short.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  if (!in_smallbin_range(nb)) {\n" +
"    bin = bin_at(av, idx);\n" +
"\n" +
"    for (victim = last(bin); victim != bin; victim = victim->bk) {\n" +
"      size = chunksize(victim);\n" +
"\n" +
"      if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb)) {\n" +
"        remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"        unlink(victim, bck, fwd);\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* Exhaust */\n" +
"        if (remainder_size < MINSIZE)  {\n" +
"          set_inuse_bit_at_offset(victim, size);\n" +
"          check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"          return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        /* Split */\n" +
"        else {\n" +
"          remainder = chunk_at_offset(victim, nb);\n" +
"          unsorted_chunks(av)->bk = unsorted_chunks(av)->fd = remainder;\n" +
"          remainder->bk = remainder->fd = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"          set_head(victim, nb | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"          set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"          set_foot(remainder, remainder_size);\n" +
"          check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"          return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Search for a chunk by scanning bins, starting with next largest\n" +
"    bin. This search is strictly by best-fit; i.e., the smallest\n" +
"    (with ties going to approximately the least recently used) chunk\n" +
"    that fits is selected.\n" +
"\n" +
"    The bitmap avoids needing to check that most blocks are nonempty.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  ++idx;\n" +
"  bin = bin_at(av,idx);\n" +
"  block = idx2block(idx);\n" +
"  map = av->binmap[block];\n" +
"  bit = idx2bit(idx);\n" +
"\n" +
"  for (;;) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Skip rest of block if there are no more set bits in this block.  */\n" +
"    if (bit > map || bit == 0) {\n" +
"      do {\n" +
"        if (++block >= BINMAPSIZE)  /* out of bins */\n" +
"          goto use_top;\n" +
"      } while ( (map = av->binmap[block]) == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"      bin = bin_at(av, (block << BINMAPSHIFT));\n" +
"      bit = 1;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Advance to bin with set bit. There must be one. */\n" +
"    while ((bit & map) == 0) {\n" +
"      bin = next_bin(bin);\n" +
"      bit <<= 1;\n" +
"      assert(bit != 0);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Inspect the bin. It is likely to be non-empty */\n" +
"    victim = last(bin);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*  If a false alarm (empty bin), clear the bit. */\n" +
"    if (victim == bin) {\n" +
"      av->binmap[block] = map &= ~bit; /* Write through */\n" +
"      bin = next_bin(bin);\n" +
"      bit <<= 1;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      size = chunksize(victim);\n" +
"\n" +
"      /*  We know the first chunk in this bin is big enough to use. */\n" +
"      assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb));\n" +
"\n" +
"      remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* unlink */\n" +
"      bck = victim->bk;\n" +
"      bin->bk = bck;\n" +
"      bck->fd = bin;\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* Exhaust */\n" +
"      if (remainder_size < MINSIZE) {\n" +
"        set_inuse_bit_at_offset(victim, size);\n" +
"        check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"        return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* Split */\n" +
"      else {\n" +
"        remainder = chunk_at_offset(victim, nb);\n" +
"\n" +
"        unsorted_chunks(av)->bk = unsorted_chunks(av)->fd = remainder;\n" +
"        remainder->bk = remainder->fd = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"        /* advertise as last remainder */\n" +
"        if (in_smallbin_range(nb))\n" +
"          av->last_remainder = remainder;\n" +
"\n" +
"        set_head(victim, nb | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        set_foot(remainder, remainder_size);\n" +
"        check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"        return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  use_top:\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If large enough, split off the chunk bordering the end of memory\n" +
"    (held in av->top). Note that this is in accord with the best-fit\n" +
"    search rule.  In effect, av->top is treated as larger (and thus\n" +
"    less well fitting) than any other available chunk since it can\n" +
"    be extended to be as large as necessary (up to system\n" +
"    limitations).\n" +
"\n" +
"    We require that av->top always exists (i.e., has size >=\n" +
"    MINSIZE) after initialization, so if it would otherwise be\n" +
"    exhuasted by current request, it is replenished. (The main\n" +
"    reason for ensuring it exists is that we may need MINSIZE space\n" +
"    to put in fenceposts in sysmalloc.)\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  victim = av->top;\n" +
"  size = chunksize(victim);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE)) {\n" +
"    remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"    remainder = chunk_at_offset(victim, nb);\n" +
"    av->top = remainder;\n" +
"    set_head(victim, nb | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"    set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"\n" +
"    check_malloced_chunk(victim, nb);\n" +
"    return chunk2mem(victim);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"     If no space in top, relay to handle system-dependent cases\n" +
"  */\n" +
"  return sYSMALLOc(nb, av);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n") +
(
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ free ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"void fREe(Void_t* mem)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"void fREe(mem) Void_t* mem;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr       p;           /* chunk corresponding to mem */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;        /* its size */\n" +
"  mfastbinptr*    fb;          /* associated fastbin */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       nextchunk;   /* next contiguous chunk */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T nextsize;    /* its size */\n" +
"  int             nextinuse;   /* true if nextchunk is used */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T prevsize;    /* size of previous contiguous chunk */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       bck;         /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       fwd;         /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* free(0) has no effect */\n" +
"  if (mem != 0) {\n" +
"    p = mem2chunk(mem);\n" +
"    size = chunksize(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"    check_inuse_chunk(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      If eligible, place chunk on a fastbin so it can be found\n" +
"      and used quickly in malloc.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) <= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_fast)\n" +
"\n" +
"#if TRIM_FASTBINS\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"           If TRIM_FASTBINS set, don't place chunks\n" +
"           bordering top into fastbins\n" +
"        */\n" +
"        && (chunk_at_offset(p, size) != av->top)\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"        ) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      set_fastchunks(av);\n" +
"      fb = &(av->fastbins[fastbin_index(size)]);\n" +
"      p->fd = *fb;\n" +
"      *fb = p;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"       Consolidate other non-mmapped chunks as they arrive.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    else if (!chunk_is_mmapped(p)) {\n" +
"      set_anychunks(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"      nextchunk = chunk_at_offset(p, size);\n" +
"      nextsize = chunksize(nextchunk);\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* consolidate backward */\n" +
"      if (!prev_inuse(p)) {\n" +
"        prevsize = p->prev_size;\n" +
"        size += prevsize;\n" +
"        p = chunk_at_offset(p, -((long) prevsize));\n" +
"        unlink(p, bck, fwd);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (nextchunk != av->top) {\n" +
"        /* get and clear inuse bit */\n" +
"        nextinuse = inuse_bit_at_offset(nextchunk, nextsize);\n" +
"        set_head(nextchunk, nextsize);\n" +
"\n" +
"        /* consolidate forward */\n" +
"        if (!nextinuse) {\n" +
"          unlink(nextchunk, bck, fwd);\n" +
"          size += nextsize;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"          Place the chunk in unsorted chunk list. Chunks are\n" +
"          not placed into regular bins until after they have\n" +
"          been given one chance to be used in malloc.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"\n" +
"        bck = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"        fwd = bck->fd;\n" +
"        p->bk = bck;\n" +
"        p->fd = fwd;\n" +
"        bck->fd = p;\n" +
"        fwd->bk = p;\n" +
"\n" +
"        set_head(p, size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        set_foot(p, size);\n" +
"\n" +
"        check_free_chunk(p);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /*\n" +
"         If the chunk borders the current high end of memory,\n" +
"         consolidate into top\n" +
"      */\n" +
"\n" +
"      else {\n" +
"        size += nextsize;\n" +
"        set_head(p, size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        av->top = p;\n" +
"        check_chunk(p);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /*\n" +
"        If freeing a large space, consolidate possibly-surrounding\n" +
"        chunks. Then, if the total unused topmost memory exceeds trim\n" +
"        threshold, ask malloc_trim to reduce top.\n" +
"\n" +
"        Unless max_fast is 0, we don't know if there are fastbins\n" +
"        bordering top, so we cannot tell for sure whether threshold\n" +
"        has been reached unless fastbins are consolidated.  But we\n" +
"        don't want to consolidate on each free.  As a compromise,\n" +
"        consolidation is performed if FASTBIN_CONSOLIDATION_THRESHOLD\n" +
"        is reached.\n" +
"      */\n" +
"\n" +
"      if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) >= FASTBIN_CONSOLIDATION_THRESHOLD) {\n" +
"        if (have_fastchunks(av))\n" +
"          malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM\n" +
"        if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(chunksize(av->top)) >=\n" +
"            (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->trim_threshold))\n" +
"          sYSTRIm(av->top_pad, av);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      If the chunk was allocated via mmap, release via munmap()\n" +
"      Note that if HAVE_MMAP is false but chunk_is_mmapped is\n" +
"      true, then user must have overwritten memory. There's nothing\n" +
"      we can do to catch this error unless DEBUG is set, in which case\n" +
"      check_inuse_chunk (above) will have triggered error.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"      int ret;\n" +
"      INTERNAL_SIZE_T offset = p->prev_size;\n" +
"      av->n_mmaps--;\n" +
"      av->mmapped_mem -= (size + offset);\n" +
"      ret = munmap((char*)p - offset, size + offset);\n" +
"      /* munmap returns non-zero on failure */\n" +
"      assert(ret == 0);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n") +
(
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------- malloc_consolidate -------------------------\n" +
"\n" +
"  malloc_consolidate is a specialized version of free() that tears\n" +
"  down chunks held in fastbins.  Free itself cannot be used for this\n" +
"  purpose since, among other things, it might place chunks back onto\n" +
"  fastbins.  So, instead, we need to use a minor variant of the same\n" +
"  code.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Also, because this routine needs to be called the first time through\n" +
"  malloc anyway, it turns out to be the perfect place to trigger\n" +
"  initialization code.\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static void malloc_consolidate(mstate av)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static void malloc_consolidate(av) mstate av;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mfastbinptr*    fb;                 /* current fastbin being consolidated */\n" +
"  mfastbinptr*    maxfb;              /* last fastbin (for loop control) */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       p;                  /* current chunk being consolidated */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       nextp;              /* next chunk to consolidate */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       unsorted_bin;       /* bin header */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       first_unsorted;     /* chunk to link to */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* These have same use as in free() */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       nextchunk;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T nextsize;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T prevsize;\n" +
"  int             nextinuse;\n" +
"  mchunkptr       bck;\n" +
"  mchunkptr       fwd;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    If max_fast is 0, we know that av hasn't\n" +
"    yet been initialized, in which case do so below\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (av->max_fast != 0) {\n" +
"    clear_fastchunks(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"    unsorted_bin = unsorted_chunks(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Remove each chunk from fast bin and consolidate it, placing it\n" +
"      then in unsorted bin. Among other reasons for doing this,\n" +
"      placing in unsorted bin avoids needing to calculate actual bins\n" +
"      until malloc is sure that chunks aren't immediately going to be\n" +
"      reused anyway.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    maxfb = &(av->fastbins[fastbin_index(av->max_fast)]);\n" +
"    fb = &(av->fastbins[0]);\n" +
"    do {\n" +
"      if ( (p = *fb) != 0) {\n" +
"        *fb = 0;\n" +
"\n" +
"        do {\n" +
"          check_inuse_chunk(p);\n" +
"          nextp = p->fd;\n" +
"\n" +
"          /* Slightly streamlined version of consolidation code in free() */\n" +
"          size = p->size & ~PREV_INUSE;\n" +
"          nextchunk = chunk_at_offset(p, size);\n" +
"          nextsize = chunksize(nextchunk);\n" +
"\n" +
"          if (!prev_inuse(p)) {\n" +
"            prevsize = p->prev_size;\n" +
"            size += prevsize;\n" +
"            p = chunk_at_offset(p, -((long) prevsize));\n" +
"            unlink(p, bck, fwd);\n" +
"          }\n" +
"\n" +
"          if (nextchunk != av->top) {\n" +
"            nextinuse = inuse_bit_at_offset(nextchunk, nextsize);\n" +
"            set_head(nextchunk, nextsize);\n" +
"\n" +
"            if (!nextinuse) {\n" +
"              size += nextsize;\n" +
"              unlink(nextchunk, bck, fwd);\n" +
"            }\n" +
"\n" +
"            first_unsorted = unsorted_bin->fd;\n" +
"            unsorted_bin->fd = p;\n" +
"            first_unsorted->bk = p;\n" +
"\n" +
"            set_head(p, size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"            p->bk = unsorted_bin;\n" +
"            p->fd = first_unsorted;\n" +
"            set_foot(p, size);\n" +
"          }\n" +
"\n" +
"          else {\n" +
"            size += nextsize;\n" +
"            set_head(p, size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"            av->top = p;\n" +
"          }\n" +
"\n" +
"        } while ( (p = nextp) != 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    } while (fb++ != maxfb);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else {\n" +
"    malloc_init_state(av);\n" +
"    check_malloc_state();\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ realloc ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* rEALLOc(Void_t* oldmem, size_t bytes)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t* rEALLOc(oldmem, bytes) Void_t* oldmem; size_t bytes;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  nb;              /* padded request size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr        oldp;            /* chunk corresponding to oldmem */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  oldsize;         /* its size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr        newp;            /* chunk to return */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T  newsize;         /* its size */\n" +
"  Void_t*          newmem;          /* corresponding user mem */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr        next;            /* next contiguous chunk after oldp */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr        remainder;       /* extra space at end of newp */\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T     remainder_size;  /* its size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  mchunkptr        bck;             /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"  mchunkptr        fwd;             /* misc temp for linking */\n" +
"\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T     copysize;        /* bytes to copy */\n" +
"  unsigned int     ncopies;         /* INTERNAL_SIZE_T words to copy */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* s;               /* copy source */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* d;               /* copy destination */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef REALLOC_ZERO_BYTES_FREES\n" +
"  if (bytes == 0) {\n" +
"    fREe(oldmem);\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  /* realloc of null is supposed to be same as malloc */\n" +
"  if (oldmem == 0) return mALLOc(bytes);\n" +
"\n" +
"  checked_request2size(bytes, nb);\n" +
"\n" +
"  oldp    = mem2chunk(oldmem);\n" +
"  oldsize = chunksize(oldp);\n" +
"\n" +
"  check_inuse_chunk(oldp);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (!chunk_is_mmapped(oldp)) {\n" +
"\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(oldsize) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb)) {\n" +
"      /* already big enough; split below */\n" +
"      newp = oldp;\n" +
"      newsize = oldsize;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      next = chunk_at_offset(oldp, oldsize);\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* Try to expand forward into top */\n" +
"      if (next == av->top &&\n" +
"          (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(newsize = oldsize + chunksize(next)) >=\n" +
"          (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE)) {\n" +
"        set_head_size(oldp, nb);\n" +
"        av->top = chunk_at_offset(oldp, nb);\n" +
"        set_head(av->top, (newsize - nb) | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"        return chunk2mem(oldp);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* Try to expand forward into next chunk;  split off remainder below */\n" +
"      else if (next != av->top &&\n" +
"               !inuse(next) &&\n" +
"               (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(newsize = oldsize + chunksize(next)) >=\n" +
"               (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb)) {\n" +
"        newp = oldp;\n" +
"        unlink(next, bck, fwd);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"\n" +
"      /* allocate, copy, free */\n" +
"      else {\n" +
"        newmem = mALLOc(nb - MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK);\n" +
"        if (newmem == 0)\n" +
"          return 0; /* propagate failure */\n" +
"\n" +
"        newp = mem2chunk(newmem);\n" +
"        newsize = chunksize(newp);\n" +
"\n" +
"        /*\n" +
"          Avoid copy if newp is next chunk after oldp.\n" +
"        */\n" +
"        if (newp == next) {\n" +
"          newsize += oldsize;\n" +
"          newp = oldp;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        else {\n" +
"          /*\n" +
"            Unroll copy of <= 36 bytes (72 if 8byte sizes)\n" +
"            We know that contents have an odd number of\n" +
"            INTERNAL_SIZE_T-sized words; minimally 3.\n" +
"          */\n" +
"\n" +
"          copysize = oldsize - SIZE_SZ;\n" +
"          s = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*)(oldmem);\n" +
"          d = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*)(newmem);\n" +
"          ncopies = copysize / sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T);\n" +
"          assert(ncopies >= 3);\n" +
"\n" +
"          if (ncopies > 9)\n" +
"            MALLOC_COPY(d, s, copysize);\n" +
"\n" +
"          else {\n" +
"            *(d+0) = *(s+0);\n" +
"            *(d+1) = *(s+1);\n" +
"            *(d+2) = *(s+2);\n" +
"            if (ncopies > 4) {\n" +
"              *(d+3) = *(s+3);\n" +
"              *(d+4) = *(s+4);\n" +
"              if (ncopies > 6) {\n" +
"                *(d+5) = *(s+5);\n" +
"                *(d+6) = *(s+6);\n" +
"                if (ncopies > 8) {\n" +
"                  *(d+7) = *(s+7);\n" +
"                  *(d+8) = *(s+8);\n" +
"                }\n" +
"              }\n" +
"            }\n" +
"          }\n" +
"\n" +
"          fREe(oldmem);\n" +
"          check_inuse_chunk(newp);\n" +
"          return chunk2mem(newp);\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* If possible, free extra space in old or extended chunk */\n" +
"\n" +
"    assert((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(newsize) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb));\n" +
"\n" +
"    remainder_size = newsize - nb;\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (remainder_size < MINSIZE) { /* not enough extra to split off */\n" +
"      set_head_size(newp, newsize);\n" +
"      set_inuse_bit_at_offset(newp, newsize);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else { /* split remainder */\n" +
"      remainder = chunk_at_offset(newp, nb);\n" +
"      set_head_size(newp, nb);\n" +
"      set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      /* Mark remainder as inuse so free() won't complain */\n" +
"      set_inuse_bit_at_offset(remainder, remainder_size);\n" +
"      fREe(chunk2mem(remainder));\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    check_inuse_chunk(newp);\n" +
"    return chunk2mem(newp);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Handle mmap cases\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"  else {\n" +
"#if HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"\n" +
"#if HAVE_MREMAP\n" +
"    INTERNAL_SIZE_T offset = oldp->prev_size;\n" +
"    size_t pagemask = av->pagesize - 1;\n" +
"    char *cp;\n" +
"    CHUNK_SIZE_T  sum;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Note the extra SIZE_SZ overhead */\n" +
"    newsize = (nb + offset + SIZE_SZ + pagemask) & ~pagemask;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* don't need to remap if still within same page */\n" +
"    if (oldsize == newsize - offset)\n" +
"      return oldmem;\n" +
"\n" +
"    cp = (char*)mremap((char*)oldp - offset, oldsize + offset, newsize, 1);\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (cp != (char*)MORECORE_FAILURE) {\n" +
"\n" +
"      newp = (mchunkptr)(cp + offset);\n" +
"      set_head(newp, (newsize - offset)|IS_MMAPPED);\n" +
"\n" +
"      assert(aligned_OK(chunk2mem(newp)));\n" +
"      assert((newp->prev_size == offset));\n" +
"\n") +
(
"      /* update statistics */\n" +
"      sum = av->mmapped_mem += newsize - oldsize;\n" +
"      if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_mmapped_mem))\n" +
"        av->max_mmapped_mem = sum;\n" +
"      sum += av->sbrked_mem;\n" +
"      if (sum > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(av->max_total_mem))\n" +
"        av->max_total_mem = sum;\n" +
"\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(newp);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Note the extra SIZE_SZ overhead. */\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(oldsize) >= (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + SIZE_SZ))\n" +
"      newmem = oldmem; /* do nothing */\n" +
"    else {\n" +
"      /* Must alloc, copy, free. */\n" +
"      newmem = mALLOc(nb - MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK);\n" +
"      if (newmem != 0) {\n" +
"        MALLOC_COPY(newmem, oldmem, oldsize - 2*SIZE_SZ);\n" +
"        fREe(oldmem);\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    return newmem;\n" +
"\n" +
"#else\n" +
"    /* If !HAVE_MMAP, but chunk_is_mmapped, user must have overwritten mem */\n" +
"    check_malloc_state();\n" +
"    MALLOC_FAILURE_ACTION;\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ memalign ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* mEMALIGn(size_t alignment, size_t bytes)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t* mEMALIGn(alignment, bytes) size_t alignment; size_t bytes;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T nb;             /* padded  request size */\n" +
"  char*           m;              /* memory returned by malloc call */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       p;              /* corresponding chunk */\n" +
"  char*           brk;            /* alignment point within p */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       newp;           /* chunk to return */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T newsize;        /* its size */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T leadsize;       /* leading space before alignment point */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       remainder;      /* spare room at end to split off */\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T    remainder_size; /* its size */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* If need less alignment than we give anyway, just relay to malloc */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (alignment <= MALLOC_ALIGNMENT) return mALLOc(bytes);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Otherwise, ensure that it is at least a minimum chunk size */\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (alignment <  MINSIZE) alignment = MINSIZE;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Make sure alignment is power of 2 (in case MINSIZE is not).  */\n" +
"  if ((alignment & (alignment - 1)) != 0) {\n" +
"    size_t a = MALLOC_ALIGNMENT * 2;\n" +
"    while ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)a < (CHUNK_SIZE_T)alignment) a <<= 1;\n" +
"    alignment = a;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  checked_request2size(bytes, nb);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"    Strategy: find a spot within that chunk that meets the alignment\n" +
"    request, and then possibly free the leading and trailing space.\n" +
"  */\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Call malloc with worst case padding to hit alignment. */\n" +
"\n" +
"  m  = (char*)(mALLOc(nb + alignment + MINSIZE));\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (m == 0) return 0; /* propagate failure */\n" +
"\n" +
"  p = mem2chunk(m);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if ((((PTR_UINT)(m)) % alignment) != 0) { /* misaligned */\n" +
"\n" +
"    /*\n" +
"      Find an aligned spot inside chunk.  Since we need to give back\n" +
"      leading space in a chunk of at least MINSIZE, if the first\n" +
"      calculation places us at a spot with less than MINSIZE leader,\n" +
"      we can move to the next aligned spot -- we've allocated enough\n" +
"      total room so that this is always possible.\n" +
"    */\n" +
"\n" +
"    brk = (char*)mem2chunk((PTR_UINT)(((PTR_UINT)(m + alignment - 1)) &\n" +
"                           -((signed long) alignment)));\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(brk - (char*)(p)) < MINSIZE)\n" +
"      brk += alignment;\n" +
"\n" +
"    newp = (mchunkptr)brk;\n" +
"    leadsize = brk - (char*)(p);\n" +
"    newsize = chunksize(p) - leadsize;\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* For mmapped chunks, just adjust offset */\n" +
"    if (chunk_is_mmapped(p)) {\n" +
"      newp->prev_size = p->prev_size + leadsize;\n" +
"      set_head(newp, newsize|IS_MMAPPED);\n" +
"      return chunk2mem(newp);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"\n" +
"    /* Otherwise, give back leader, use the rest */\n" +
"    set_head(newp, newsize | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"    set_inuse_bit_at_offset(newp, newsize);\n" +
"    set_head_size(p, leadsize);\n" +
"    fREe(chunk2mem(p));\n" +
"    p = newp;\n" +
"\n" +
"    assert (newsize >= nb &&\n" +
"            (((PTR_UINT)(chunk2mem(p))) % alignment) == 0);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Also give back spare room at the end */\n" +
"  if (!chunk_is_mmapped(p)) {\n" +
"    size = chunksize(p);\n" +
"    if ((CHUNK_SIZE_T)(size) > (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(nb + MINSIZE)) {\n" +
"      remainder_size = size - nb;\n" +
"      remainder = chunk_at_offset(p, nb);\n" +
"      set_head(remainder, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      set_head_size(p, nb);\n" +
"      fREe(chunk2mem(remainder));\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  check_inuse_chunk(p);\n" +
"  return chunk2mem(p);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ calloc ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* cALLOc(size_t n_elements, size_t elem_size)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t* cALLOc(n_elements, elem_size) size_t n_elements; size_t elem_size;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mchunkptr p;\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  clearsize;\n" +
"  CHUNK_SIZE_T  nclears;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T* d;\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  Void_t* mem = mALLOc(n_elements * elem_size);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (mem != 0) {\n" +
"    p = mem2chunk(mem);\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (!chunk_is_mmapped(p))\n" +
"    {\n" +
"      /*\n" +
"        Unroll clear of <= 36 bytes (72 if 8byte sizes)\n" +
"        We know that contents have an odd number of\n" +
"        INTERNAL_SIZE_T-sized words; minimally 3.\n" +
"      */\n" +
"\n" +
"      d = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*)mem;\n" +
"      clearsize = chunksize(p) - SIZE_SZ;\n" +
"      nclears = clearsize / sizeof(INTERNAL_SIZE_T);\n" +
"      assert(nclears >= 3);\n" +
"\n" +
"      if (nclears > 9)\n" +
"        MALLOC_ZERO(d, clearsize);\n" +
"\n" +
"      else {\n" +
"        *(d+0) = 0;\n" +
"        *(d+1) = 0;\n" +
"        *(d+2) = 0;\n" +
"        if (nclears > 4) {\n" +
"          *(d+3) = 0;\n" +
"          *(d+4) = 0;\n" +
"          if (nclears > 6) {\n" +
"            *(d+5) = 0;\n" +
"            *(d+6) = 0;\n" +
"            if (nclears > 8) {\n" +
"              *(d+7) = 0;\n" +
"              *(d+8) = 0;\n" +
"            }\n" +
"          }\n" +
"        }\n" +
"      }\n" +
"    }\n" +
"#if ! MMAP_CLEARS\n" +
"    else\n" +
"    {\n" +
"      d = (INTERNAL_SIZE_T*)mem;\n" +
"      /*\n" +
"        Note the additional SIZE_SZ\n" +
"      */\n" +
"      clearsize = chunksize(p) - 2*SIZE_SZ;\n" +
"      MALLOC_ZERO(d, clearsize);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return mem;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ cfree ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"void cFREe(Void_t *mem)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"void cFREe(mem) Void_t *mem;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  fREe(mem);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------- independent_calloc -------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t** iCALLOc(size_t n_elements, size_t elem_size, Void_t* chunks[])\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t** iCALLOc(n_elements, elem_size, chunks) size_t n_elements; size_t elem_size; Void_t* chunks[];\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  size_t sz = elem_size; /* serves as 1-element array */\n" +
"  /* opts arg of 3 means all elements are same size, and should be cleared */\n" +
"  return iALLOc(n_elements, &sz, 3, chunks);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------- independent_comalloc -------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t** iCOMALLOc(size_t n_elements, size_t sizes[], Void_t* chunks[])\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t** iCOMALLOc(n_elements, sizes, chunks) size_t n_elements; size_t sizes[]; Void_t* chunks[];\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  return iALLOc(n_elements, sizes, 0, chunks);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ ialloc ------------------------------\n" +
"  ialloc provides common support for independent_X routines, handling all of\n" +
"  the combinations that can result.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The opts arg has:\n" +
"    bit 0 set if all elements are same size (using sizes[0])\n" +
"    bit 1 set if elements should be zeroed\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"static Void_t** iALLOc(size_t n_elements,\n" +
"                       size_t* sizes,\n" +
"                       int opts,\n" +
"                       Void_t* chunks[])\n" +
"#else\n" +
"static Void_t** iALLOc(n_elements, sizes, opts, chunks) size_t n_elements; size_t* sizes; int opts; Void_t* chunks[];\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T element_size;   /* chunksize of each element, if all same */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T contents_size;  /* total size of elements */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T array_size;     /* request size of pointer array */\n" +
"  Void_t*         mem;            /* malloced aggregate space */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       p;              /* corresponding chunk */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T remainder_size; /* remaining bytes while splitting */\n" +
"  Void_t**        marray;         /* either \"chunks\" or malloced ptr array */\n" +
"  mchunkptr       array_chunk;    /* chunk for malloced ptr array */\n" +
"  int             mmx;            /* to disable mmap */\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T size;\n" +
"  size_t          i;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization */\n" +
"  if (av->max_fast == 0) malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* compute array length, if needed */\n" +
"  if (chunks != 0) {\n" +
"    if (n_elements == 0)\n" +
"      return chunks; /* nothing to do */\n" +
"    marray = chunks;\n" +
"    array_size = 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else {\n" +
"    /* if empty req, must still return chunk representing empty array */\n" +
"    if (n_elements == 0)\n" +
"      return (Void_t**) mALLOc(0);\n" +
"    marray = 0;\n" +
"    array_size = request2size(n_elements * (sizeof(Void_t*)));\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* compute total element size */\n" +
"  if (opts & 0x1) { /* all-same-size */\n" +
"    element_size = request2size(*sizes);\n" +
"    contents_size = n_elements * element_size;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  else { /* add up all the sizes */\n" +
"    element_size = 0;\n" +
"    contents_size = 0;\n" +
"    for (i = 0; i != n_elements; ++i)\n" +
"      contents_size += request2size(sizes[i]);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n") +
(
"  /* subtract out alignment bytes from total to minimize overallocation */\n" +
"  size = contents_size + array_size - MALLOC_ALIGN_MASK;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /*\n" +
"     Allocate the aggregate chunk.\n" +
"     But first disable mmap so malloc won't use it, since\n" +
"     we would not be able to later free/realloc space internal\n" +
"     to a segregated mmap region.\n" +
" */\n" +
"  mmx = av->n_mmaps_max;   /* disable mmap */\n" +
"  av->n_mmaps_max = 0;\n" +
"  mem = mALLOc(size);\n" +
"  av->n_mmaps_max = mmx;   /* reset mmap */\n" +
"  if (mem == 0)\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"\n" +
"  p = mem2chunk(mem);\n" +
"  assert(!chunk_is_mmapped(p));\n" +
"  remainder_size = chunksize(p);\n" +
"\n" +
"  if (opts & 0x2) {       /* optionally clear the elements */\n" +
"    MALLOC_ZERO(mem, remainder_size - SIZE_SZ - array_size);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* If not provided, allocate the pointer array as final part of chunk */\n" +
"  if (marray == 0) {\n" +
"    array_chunk = chunk_at_offset(p, contents_size);\n" +
"    marray = (Void_t**) (chunk2mem(array_chunk));\n" +
"    set_head(array_chunk, (remainder_size - contents_size) | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"    remainder_size = contents_size;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* split out elements */\n" +
"  for (i = 0; ; ++i) {\n" +
"    marray[i] = chunk2mem(p);\n" +
"    if (i != n_elements-1) {\n" +
"      if (element_size != 0)\n" +
"        size = element_size;\n" +
"      else\n" +
"        size = request2size(sizes[i]);\n" +
"      remainder_size -= size;\n" +
"      set_head(p, size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      p = chunk_at_offset(p, size);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else { /* the final element absorbs any overallocation slop */\n" +
"      set_head(p, remainder_size | PREV_INUSE);\n" +
"      break;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"#if DEBUG\n" +
"  if (marray != chunks) {\n" +
"    /* final element must have exactly exhausted chunk */\n" +
"    if (element_size != 0)\n" +
"      assert(remainder_size == element_size);\n" +
"    else\n" +
"      assert(remainder_size == request2size(sizes[i]));\n" +
"    check_inuse_chunk(mem2chunk(marray));\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  for (i = 0; i != n_elements; ++i)\n" +
"    check_inuse_chunk(mem2chunk(marray[i]));\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"  return marray;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ valloc ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* vALLOc(size_t bytes)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t* vALLOc(bytes) size_t bytes;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization */\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  if (av->max_fast == 0) malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"  return mEMALIGn(av->pagesize, bytes);\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ pvalloc ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"Void_t* pVALLOc(size_t bytes)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"Void_t* pVALLOc(bytes) size_t bytes;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  size_t pagesz;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization */\n" +
"  if (av->max_fast == 0) malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"  pagesz = av->pagesize;\n" +
"  return mEMALIGn(pagesz, (bytes + pagesz - 1) & ~(pagesz - 1));\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ malloc_trim ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"int mTRIm(size_t pad)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"int mTRIm(pad) size_t pad;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization/consolidation */\n" +
"  malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifndef MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM\n" +
"  return sYSTRIm(pad, av);\n" +
"#else\n" +
"  return 0;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------- malloc_usable_size -------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"size_t mUSABLe(Void_t* mem)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"size_t mUSABLe(mem) Void_t* mem;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mchunkptr p;\n" +
"  if (mem != 0) {\n" +
"    p = mem2chunk(mem);\n" +
"    if (chunk_is_mmapped(p))\n" +
"      return chunksize(p) - 2*SIZE_SZ;\n" +
"    else if (inuse(p))\n" +
"      return chunksize(p) - SIZE_SZ;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"  return 0;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ mallinfo ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n") +
(
"struct mallinfo mALLINFo()\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  struct mallinfo mi;\n" +
"  unsigned int i;\n" +
"  mbinptr b;\n" +
"  mchunkptr p;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T avail;\n" +
"  INTERNAL_SIZE_T fastavail;\n" +
"  int nblocks;\n" +
"  int nfastblocks;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization */\n" +
"  if (av->top == 0)  malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"  check_malloc_state();\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* Account for top */\n" +
"  avail = chunksize(av->top);\n" +
"  nblocks = 1;  /* top always exists */\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* traverse fastbins */\n" +
"  nfastblocks = 0;\n" +
"  fastavail = 0;\n" +
"\n" +
"  for (i = 0; i < NFASTBINS; ++i) {\n" +
"    for (p = av->fastbins[i]; p != 0; p = p->fd) {\n" +
"      ++nfastblocks;\n" +
"      fastavail += chunksize(p);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  avail += fastavail;\n" +
"\n" +
"  /* traverse regular bins */\n" +
"  for (i = 1; i < NBINS; ++i) {\n" +
"    b = bin_at(av, i);\n" +
"    for (p = last(b); p != b; p = p->bk) {\n" +
"      ++nblocks;\n" +
"      avail += chunksize(p);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  mi.smblks = nfastblocks;\n" +
"  mi.ordblks = nblocks;\n" +
"  mi.fordblks = avail;\n" +
"  mi.uordblks = av->sbrked_mem - avail;\n" +
"  mi.arena = av->sbrked_mem;\n" +
"  mi.hblks = av->n_mmaps;\n" +
"  mi.hblkhd = av->mmapped_mem;\n" +
"  mi.fsmblks = fastavail;\n" +
"  mi.keepcost = chunksize(av->top);\n" +
"  mi.usmblks = av->max_total_mem;\n" +
"  return mi;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ malloc_stats ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"void mSTATs()\n" +
"{\n" +
"  struct mallinfo mi = mALLINFo();\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    CHUNK_SIZE_T  free, reserved, committed;\n" +
"    vminfo (&free, &reserved, &committed);\n" +
"    fprintf(stderr, \"free bytes       = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"            free);\n" +
"    fprintf(stderr, \"reserved bytes   = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"            reserved);\n" +
"    fprintf(stderr, \"committed bytes  = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"            committed);\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"  fprintf(stderr, \"max system bytes = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"          (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(mi.usmblks));\n" +
"  fprintf(stderr, \"system bytes     = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"          (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(mi.arena + mi.hblkhd));\n" +
"  fprintf(stderr, \"in use bytes     = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"          (CHUNK_SIZE_T)(mi.uordblks + mi.hblkhd));\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    CHUNK_SIZE_T  kernel, user;\n" +
"    if (cpuinfo (TRUE, &kernel, &user)) {\n" +
"      fprintf(stderr, \"kernel ms        = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"              kernel);\n" +
"      fprintf(stderr, \"user ms          = %10lu\\n\",\n" +
"              user);\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  ------------------------------ mallopt ------------------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"#if __STD_C\n" +
"int mALLOPt(int param_number, int value)\n" +
"#else\n" +
"int mALLOPt(param_number, value) int param_number; int value;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"{\n" +
"  mstate av = get_malloc_state();\n" +
"  /* Ensure initialization/consolidation */\n" +
"  malloc_consolidate(av);\n" +
"\n" +
"  switch(param_number) {\n" +
"  case M_MXFAST:\n" +
"    if (value >= 0 && value <= MAX_FAST_SIZE) {\n" +
"      set_max_fast(av, value);\n" +
"      return 1;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else\n" +
"      return 0;\n" +
"\n" +
"  case M_TRIM_THRESHOLD:\n" +
"    av->trim_threshold = value;\n" +
"    return 1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  case M_TOP_PAD:\n" +
"    av->top_pad = value;\n" +
"    return 1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  case M_MMAP_THRESHOLD:\n" +
"    av->mmap_threshold = value;\n" +
"    return 1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  case M_MMAP_MAX:\n" +
"#if !HAVE_MMAP\n" +
"    if (value != 0)\n" +
"      return 0;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    av->n_mmaps_max = value;\n" +
"    return 1;\n" +
"\n" +
"  default:\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"  }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  -------------------- Alternative MORECORE functions --------------------\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n") +
(
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  General Requirements for MORECORE.\n" +
"\n" +
"  The MORECORE function must have the following properties:\n" +
"\n" +
"  If MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS is false:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE must allocate in multiples of pagesize. It will\n" +
"      only be called with arguments that are multiples of pagesize.\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE(0) must return an address that is at least\n" +
"      MALLOC_ALIGNMENT aligned. (Page-aligning always suffices.)\n" +
"\n" +
"  else (i.e. If MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS is true):\n" +
"\n" +
"    * Consecutive calls to MORECORE with positive arguments\n" +
"      return increasing addresses, indicating that space has been\n" +
"      contiguously extended.\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE need not allocate in multiples of pagesize.\n" +
"      Calls to MORECORE need not have args of multiples of pagesize.\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE need not page-align.\n" +
"\n" +
"  In either case:\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE may allocate more memory than requested. (Or even less,\n" +
"      but this will generally result in a malloc failure.)\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE must not allocate memory when given argument zero, but\n" +
"      instead return one past the end address of memory from previous\n" +
"      nonzero call. This malloc does NOT call MORECORE(0)\n" +
"      until at least one call with positive arguments is made, so\n" +
"      the initial value returned is not important.\n" +
"\n" +
"    * Even though consecutive calls to MORECORE need not return contiguous\n" +
"      addresses, it must be OK for malloc'ed chunks to span multiple\n" +
"      regions in those cases where they do happen to be contiguous.\n" +
"\n" +
"    * MORECORE need not handle negative arguments -- it may instead\n" +
"      just return MORECORE_FAILURE when given negative arguments.\n" +
"      Negative arguments are always multiples of pagesize. MORECORE\n" +
"      must not misinterpret negative args as large positive unsigned\n" +
"      args. You can suppress all such calls from even occurring by defining\n" +
"      MORECORE_CANNOT_TRIM,\n" +
"\n" +
"  There is some variation across systems about the type of the\n" +
"  argument to sbrk/MORECORE. If size_t is unsigned, then it cannot\n" +
"  actually be size_t, because sbrk supports negative args, so it is\n" +
"  normally the signed type of the same width as size_t (sometimes\n" +
"  declared as \"intptr_t\", and sometimes \"ptrdiff_t\").  It doesn't much\n" +
"  matter though. Internally, we use \"long\" as arguments, which should\n" +
"  work across all reasonable possibilities.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Additionally, if MORECORE ever returns failure for a positive\n" +
"  request, and HAVE_MMAP is true, then mmap is used as a noncontiguous\n" +
"  system allocator. This is a useful backup strategy for systems with\n" +
"  holes in address spaces -- in this case sbrk cannot contiguously\n" +
"  expand the heap, but mmap may be able to map noncontiguous space.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If you'd like mmap to ALWAYS be used, you can define MORECORE to be\n" +
"  a function that always returns MORECORE_FAILURE.\n" +
"\n" +
"  Malloc only has limited ability to detect failures of MORECORE\n" +
"  to supply contiguous space when it says it can. In particular,\n" +
"  multithreaded programs that do not use locks may result in\n" +
"  rece conditions across calls to MORECORE that result in gaps\n" +
"  that cannot be detected as such, and subsequent corruption.\n" +
"\n" +
"  If you are using this malloc with something other than sbrk (or its\n" +
"  emulation) to supply memory regions, you probably want to set\n" +
"  MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS as false.  As an example, here is a custom\n" +
"  allocator kindly contributed for pre-OSX macOS.  It uses virtually\n" +
"  but not necessarily physically contiguous non-paged memory (locked\n" +
"  in, present and won't get swapped out).  You can use it by\n" +
"  uncommenting this section, adding some #includes, and setting up the\n" +
"  appropriate defines above:\n" +
"\n" +
"      #define MORECORE osMoreCore\n" +
"      #define MORECORE_CONTIGUOUS 0\n" +
"\n" +
"  There is also a shutdown routine that should somehow be called for\n" +
"  cleanup upon program exit.\n" +
"\n" +
"  #define MAX_POOL_ENTRIES 100\n" +
"  #define MINIMUM_MORECORE_SIZE  (64 * 1024)\n" +
"  static int next_os_pool;\n" +
"  void *our_os_pools[MAX_POOL_ENTRIES];\n" +
"\n" +
"  void *osMoreCore(int size)\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    void *ptr = 0;\n" +
"    static void *sbrk_top = 0;\n" +
"\n" +
"    if (size > 0)\n" +
"    {\n" +
"      if (size < MINIMUM_MORECORE_SIZE)\n" +
"         size = MINIMUM_MORECORE_SIZE;\n" +
"      if (CurrentExecutionLevel() == kTaskLevel)\n" +
"         ptr = PoolAllocateResident(size + RM_PAGE_SIZE, 0);\n" +
"      if (ptr == 0)\n" +
"      {\n" +
"        return (void *) MORECORE_FAILURE;\n" +
"      }\n" +
"      // save ptrs so they can be freed during cleanup\n" +
"      our_os_pools[next_os_pool] = ptr;\n" +
"      next_os_pool++;\n" +
"      ptr = (void *) ((((CHUNK_SIZE_T) ptr) + RM_PAGE_MASK) & ~RM_PAGE_MASK);\n" +
"      sbrk_top = (char *) ptr + size;\n" +
"      return ptr;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else if (size < 0)\n" +
"    {\n" +
"      // we don't currently support shrink behavior\n" +
"      return (void *) MORECORE_FAILURE;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    else\n" +
"    {\n" +
"      return sbrk_top;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"  // cleanup any allocated memory pools\n" +
"  // called as last thing before shutting down driver\n" +
"\n" +
"  void osCleanupMem(void)\n" +
"  {\n" +
"    void **ptr;\n" +
"\n" +
"    for (ptr = our_os_pools; ptr < &our_os_pools[MAX_POOL_ENTRIES]; ptr++)\n" +
"      if (*ptr)\n" +
"      {\n" +
"         PoolDeallocate(*ptr);\n" +
"         *ptr = 0;\n" +
"      }\n" +
"  }\n" +
"\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"/*\n" +
"  --------------------------------------------------------------\n" +
"\n" +
"  Emulation of sbrk for win32.\n" +
"  Donated by J. Walter <Walter@GeNeSys-e.de>.\n" +
"  For additional information about this code, and malloc on Win32, see\n" +
"     http://www.genesys-e.de/jwalter/\n" +
"*/\n" +
"\n" +
"\n") +
(
"#ifdef WIN32\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef _DEBUG\n" +
"/* #define TRACE */\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Support for USE_MALLOC_LOCK */\n" +
"#ifdef USE_MALLOC_LOCK\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Wait for spin lock */\n" +
"static int slwait (int *sl) {\n" +
"    while (InterlockedCompareExchange ((void **) sl, (void *) 1, (void *) 0) != 0)\n" +
"        Sleep (0);\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Release spin lock */\n" +
"static int slrelease (int *sl) {\n" +
"    InterlockedExchange (sl, 0);\n" +
"    return 0;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#ifdef NEEDED\n" +
"/* Spin lock for emulation code */\n" +
"static int g_sl;\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif /* USE_MALLOC_LOCK */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* getpagesize for windows */\n" +
"static long getpagesize (void) {\n" +
"    static long g_pagesize = 0;\n" +
"    if (! g_pagesize) {\n" +
"        SYSTEM_INFO system_info;\n" +
"        GetSystemInfo (&system_info);\n" +
"        g_pagesize = system_info.dwPageSize;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    return g_pagesize;\n" +
"}\n" +
"static long getregionsize (void) {\n" +
"    static long g_regionsize = 0;\n" +
"    if (! g_regionsize) {\n" +
"        SYSTEM_INFO system_info;\n" +
"        GetSystemInfo (&system_info);\n" +
"        g_regionsize = system_info.dwAllocationGranularity;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    return g_regionsize;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/* A region list entry */\n" +
"typedef struct _region_list_entry {\n" +
"    void *top_allocated;\n" +
"    void *top_committed;\n" +
"    void *top_reserved;\n" +
"    long reserve_size;\n" +
"    struct _region_list_entry *previous;\n" +
"} region_list_entry;\n" +
"\n" +
"/* Allocate and link a region entry in the region list */\n" +
"static int region_list_append (region_list_entry **last, void *base_reserved, long reserve_size) {\n" +
"    region_list_entry *next = HeapAlloc (GetProcessHeap (), 0, sizeof (region_list_entry));\n" +
"    if (! next)\n" +
"        return FALSE;\n" +
"    next->top_allocated = (char *) base_reserved;\n" +
"    next->top_committed = (char *) base_reserved;\n" +
"    next->top_reserved = (char *) base_reserved + reserve_size;\n" +
"    next->reserve_size = reserve_size;\n" +
"    next->previous = *last;\n" +
"    *last = next;\n" +
"    return TRUE;\n" +
"}\n" +
"/* Free and unlink the last region entry from the region list */\n" +
"static int region_list_remove (region_list_entry **last) {\n" +
"    region_list_entry *previous = (*last)->previous;\n" +
"    if (! HeapFree (GetProcessHeap (), sizeof (region_list_entry), *last))\n" +
"        return FALSE;\n" +
"    *last = previous;\n" +
"    return TRUE;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#define CEIL(size,to)   (((size)+(to)-1)&~((to)-1))\n" +
"#define FLOOR(size,to)  ((size)&~((to)-1))\n" +
"\n" +
"#define SBRK_SCALE  0\n" +
"/* #define SBRK_SCALE  1 */\n" +
"/* #define SBRK_SCALE  2 */\n" +
"/* #define SBRK_SCALE  4  */\n" +
"\n" +
"/* sbrk for windows */\n" +
"static void *sbrk (long size) {\n" +
"    static long g_pagesize, g_my_pagesize;\n" +
"    static long g_regionsize, g_my_regionsize;\n" +
"    static region_list_entry *g_last;\n" +
"    void *result = (void *) MORECORE_FAILURE;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"    printf (\"sbrk %d\\n\", size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Wait for spin lock */\n" +
"    slwait (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    /* First time initialization */\n" +
"    if (! g_pagesize) {\n" +
"        g_pagesize = getpagesize ();\n" +
"        g_my_pagesize = g_pagesize << SBRK_SCALE;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    if (! g_regionsize) {\n" +
"        g_regionsize = getregionsize ();\n" +
"        g_my_regionsize = g_regionsize << SBRK_SCALE;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    if (! g_last) {\n" +
"        if (! region_list_append (&g_last, 0, 0))\n" +
"           goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    /* Assert invariants */\n" +
"    assert (g_last);\n" +
"    assert ((char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size <= (char *) g_last->top_allocated &&\n" +
"            g_last->top_allocated <= g_last->top_committed);\n" +
"    assert ((char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size <= (char *) g_last->top_committed &&\n" +
"            g_last->top_committed <= g_last->top_reserved &&\n" +
"            (unsigned) g_last->top_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) g_last->top_reserved % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) g_last->reserve_size % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"    /* Allocation requested? */\n" +
"    if (size >= 0) {\n" +
"        /* Allocation size is the requested size */\n" +
"        long allocate_size = size;\n" +
"        /* Compute the size to commit */\n" +
"        long to_commit = (char *) g_last->top_allocated + allocate_size - (char *) g_last->top_committed;\n" +
"        /* Do we reach the commit limit? */\n" +
"        if (to_commit > 0) {\n" +
"            /* Round size to commit */\n" +
"            long commit_size = CEIL (to_commit, g_my_pagesize);\n" +
"            /* Compute the size to reserve */\n" +
"            long to_reserve = (char *) g_last->top_committed + commit_size - (char *) g_last->top_reserved;\n" +
"            /* Do we reach the reserve limit? */\n" +
"            if (to_reserve > 0) {\n" +
"                /* Compute the remaining size to commit in the current region */\n" +
"                long remaining_commit_size = (char *) g_last->top_reserved - (char *) g_last->top_committed;\n" +
"                if (remaining_commit_size > 0) {\n" +
"                    /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"                    assert ((unsigned) g_last->top_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"                    assert (0 < remaining_commit_size && remaining_commit_size % g_pagesize == 0); {\n" +
"                        /* Commit this */\n" +
"                        void *base_committed = VirtualAlloc (g_last->top_committed, remaining_commit_size,\n" +
"                                                             MEM_COMMIT, PAGE_READWRITE);\n" +
"                        /* Check returned pointer for consistency */\n" +
"                        if (base_committed != g_last->top_committed)\n" +
"                            goto sbrk_exit;\n") +
(
"                        /* Assert postconditions */\n" +
"                        assert ((unsigned) base_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                        printf (\"Commit %p %d\\n\", base_committed, remaining_commit_size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"                        /* Adjust the regions commit top */\n" +
"                        g_last->top_committed = (char *) base_committed + remaining_commit_size;\n" +
"                    }\n" +
"                } {\n" +
"                    /* Now we are going to search and reserve. */\n" +
"                    int contiguous = -1;\n" +
"                    int found = FALSE;\n" +
"                    MEMORY_BASIC_INFORMATION memory_info;\n" +
"                    void *base_reserved;\n" +
"                    long reserve_size;\n" +
"                    do {\n" +
"                        /* Assume contiguous memory */\n" +
"                        contiguous = TRUE;\n" +
"                        /* Round size to reserve */\n" +
"                        reserve_size = CEIL (to_reserve, g_my_regionsize);\n" +
"                        /* Start with the current region's top */\n" +
"                        memory_info.BaseAddress = g_last->top_reserved;\n" +
"                        /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"                        assert ((unsigned) memory_info.BaseAddress % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"                        assert (0 < reserve_size && reserve_size % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"                        while (VirtualQuery (memory_info.BaseAddress, &memory_info, sizeof (memory_info))) {\n" +
"                            /* Assert postconditions */\n" +
"                            assert ((unsigned) memory_info.BaseAddress % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                            printf (\"Query %p %d %s\\n\", memory_info.BaseAddress, memory_info.RegionSize,\n" +
"                                    memory_info.State == MEM_FREE ? \"FREE\":\n" +
"                                    (memory_info.State == MEM_RESERVE ? \"RESERVED\":\n" +
"                                     (memory_info.State == MEM_COMMIT ? \"COMMITTED\": \"?\")));\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"                            /* Region is free, well aligned and big enough: we are done */\n" +
"                            if (memory_info.State == MEM_FREE &&\n" +
"                                (unsigned) memory_info.BaseAddress % g_regionsize == 0 &&\n" +
"                                memory_info.RegionSize >= (unsigned) reserve_size) {\n" +
"                                found = TRUE;\n" +
"                                break;\n" +
"                            }\n" +
"                            /* From now on we can't get contiguous memory! */\n" +
"                            contiguous = FALSE;\n" +
"                            /* Recompute size to reserve */\n" +
"                            reserve_size = CEIL (allocate_size, g_my_regionsize);\n" +
"                            memory_info.BaseAddress = (char *) memory_info.BaseAddress + memory_info.RegionSize;\n" +
"                            /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"                            assert ((unsigned) memory_info.BaseAddress % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"                            assert (0 < reserve_size && reserve_size % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"                        }\n" +
"                        /* Search failed? */\n" +
"                        if (! found)\n" +
"                            goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"                        /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"                        assert ((unsigned) memory_info.BaseAddress % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"                        assert (0 < reserve_size && reserve_size % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"                        /* Try to reserve this */\n" +
"                        base_reserved = VirtualAlloc (memory_info.BaseAddress, reserve_size,\n" +
"                                                      MEM_RESERVE, PAGE_NOACCESS);\n" +
"                        if (! base_reserved) {\n" +
"                            int rc = GetLastError ();\n" +
"                            if (rc != ERROR_INVALID_ADDRESS)\n" +
"                                goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"                        }\n" +
"                        /* A null pointer signals (hopefully) a race condition with another thread. */\n" +
"                        /* In this case, we try again. */\n" +
"                    } while (! base_reserved);\n" +
"                    /* Check returned pointer for consistency */\n" +
"                    if (memory_info.BaseAddress && base_reserved != memory_info.BaseAddress)\n" +
"                        goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"                    /* Assert postconditions */\n" +
"                    assert ((unsigned) base_reserved % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                    printf (\"Reserve %p %d\\n\", base_reserved, reserve_size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"                    /* Did we get contiguous memory? */\n" +
"                    if (contiguous) {\n" +
"                        long start_size = (char *) g_last->top_committed - (char *) g_last->top_allocated;\n" +
"                        /* Adjust allocation size */\n" +
"                        allocate_size -= start_size;\n" +
"                        /* Adjust the regions allocation top */\n" +
"                        g_last->top_allocated = g_last->top_committed;\n" +
"                        /* Recompute the size to commit */\n" +
"                        to_commit = (char *) g_last->top_allocated + allocate_size - (char *) g_last->top_committed;\n" +
"                        /* Round size to commit */\n" +
"                        commit_size = CEIL (to_commit, g_my_pagesize);\n" +
"                    }\n" +
"                    /* Append the new region to the list */\n" +
"                    if (! region_list_append (&g_last, base_reserved, reserve_size))\n" +
"                        goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"                    /* Didn't we get contiguous memory? */\n" +
"                    if (! contiguous) {\n" +
"                        /* Recompute the size to commit */\n" +
"                        to_commit = (char *) g_last->top_allocated + allocate_size - (char *) g_last->top_committed;\n" +
"                        /* Round size to commit */\n" +
"                        commit_size = CEIL (to_commit, g_my_pagesize);\n" +
"                    }\n" +
"                }\n" +
"            }\n" +
"            /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"            assert ((unsigned) g_last->top_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"            assert (0 < commit_size && commit_size % g_pagesize == 0); {\n" +
"                /* Commit this */\n" +
"                void *base_committed = VirtualAlloc (g_last->top_committed, commit_size,\n" +
"                                                     MEM_COMMIT, PAGE_READWRITE);\n" +
"                /* Check returned pointer for consistency */\n" +
"                if (base_committed != g_last->top_committed)\n" +
"                    goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"                /* Assert postconditions */\n" +
"                assert ((unsigned) base_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                printf (\"Commit %p %d\\n\", base_committed, commit_size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"                /* Adjust the regions commit top */\n" +
"                g_last->top_committed = (char *) base_committed + commit_size;\n" +
"            }\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        /* Adjust the regions allocation top */\n" +
"        g_last->top_allocated = (char *) g_last->top_allocated + allocate_size;\n" +
"        result = (char *) g_last->top_allocated - size;\n" +
"    /* Deallocation requested? */\n" +
"    } else if (size < 0) {\n" +
"        long deallocate_size = - size;\n" +
"        /* As long as we have a region to release */\n" +
"        while ((char *) g_last->top_allocated - deallocate_size < (char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size) {\n" +
"            /* Get the size to release */\n" +
"            long release_size = g_last->reserve_size;\n" +
"            /* Get the base address */\n" +
"            void *base_reserved = (char *) g_last->top_reserved - release_size;\n" +
"            /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"            assert ((unsigned) base_reserved % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"            assert (0 < release_size && release_size % g_regionsize == 0); {\n" +
"                /* Release this */\n" +
"                int rc = VirtualFree (base_reserved, 0,\n" +
"                                      MEM_RELEASE);\n" +
"                /* Check returned code for consistency */\n" +
"                if (! rc)\n" +
"                    goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                printf (\"Release %p %d\\n\", base_reserved, release_size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"            }\n" +
"            /* Adjust deallocation size */\n" +
"            deallocate_size -= (char *) g_last->top_allocated - (char *) base_reserved;\n" +
"            /* Remove the old region from the list */\n" +
"            if (! region_list_remove (&g_last))\n" +
"                goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"        } {\n") +
(
"            /* Compute the size to decommit */\n" +
"            long to_decommit = (char *) g_last->top_committed - ((char *) g_last->top_allocated - deallocate_size);\n" +
"            if (to_decommit >= g_my_pagesize) {\n" +
"                /* Compute the size to decommit */\n" +
"                long decommit_size = FLOOR (to_decommit, g_my_pagesize);\n" +
"                /*  Compute the base address */\n" +
"                void *base_committed = (char *) g_last->top_committed - decommit_size;\n" +
"                /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"                assert ((unsigned) base_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"                assert (0 < decommit_size && decommit_size % g_pagesize == 0); {\n" +
"                    /* Decommit this */\n" +
"                    int rc = VirtualFree ((char *) base_committed, decommit_size,\n" +
"                                          MEM_DECOMMIT);\n" +
"                    /* Check returned code for consistency */\n" +
"                    if (! rc)\n" +
"                        goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"                    printf (\"Decommit %p %d\\n\", base_committed, decommit_size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"                }\n" +
"                /* Adjust deallocation size and regions commit and allocate top */\n" +
"                deallocate_size -= (char *) g_last->top_allocated - (char *) base_committed;\n" +
"                g_last->top_committed = base_committed;\n" +
"                g_last->top_allocated = base_committed;\n" +
"            }\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        /* Adjust regions allocate top */\n" +
"        g_last->top_allocated = (char *) g_last->top_allocated - deallocate_size;\n" +
"        /* Check for underflow */\n" +
"        if ((char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size > (char *) g_last->top_allocated ||\n" +
"            g_last->top_allocated > g_last->top_committed) {\n" +
"            /* Adjust regions allocate top */\n" +
"            g_last->top_allocated = (char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size;\n" +
"            goto sbrk_exit;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        result = g_last->top_allocated;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    /* Assert invariants */\n" +
"    assert (g_last);\n" +
"    assert ((char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size <= (char *) g_last->top_allocated &&\n" +
"            g_last->top_allocated <= g_last->top_committed);\n" +
"    assert ((char *) g_last->top_reserved - g_last->reserve_size <= (char *) g_last->top_committed &&\n" +
"            g_last->top_committed <= g_last->top_reserved &&\n" +
"            (unsigned) g_last->top_committed % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) g_last->top_reserved % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) g_last->reserve_size % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"\n" +
"sbrk_exit:\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Release spin lock */\n" +
"    slrelease (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    return result;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/* mmap for windows */\n" +
"static void *mmap (void *ptr, long size, long prot, long type, long handle, long arg) {\n" +
"    static long g_pagesize;\n" +
"    static long g_regionsize;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"    printf (\"mmap %d\\n\", size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Wait for spin lock */\n" +
"    slwait (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    /* First time initialization */\n" +
"    if (! g_pagesize)\n" +
"        g_pagesize = getpagesize ();\n" +
"    if (! g_regionsize)\n" +
"        g_regionsize = getregionsize ();\n" +
"    /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) ptr % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"    assert (size % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"    /* Allocate this */\n" +
"    ptr = VirtualAlloc (ptr, size,\n" +
"                        MEM_RESERVE | MEM_COMMIT | MEM_TOP_DOWN, PAGE_READWRITE);\n" +
"    if (! ptr) {\n" +
"        ptr = (void *) MORECORE_FAILURE;\n" +
"        goto mmap_exit;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"    /* Assert postconditions */\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) ptr % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"    printf (\"Commit %p %d\\n\", ptr, size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"mmap_exit:\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Release spin lock */\n" +
"    slrelease (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    return ptr;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"/* munmap for windows */\n" +
"static long munmap (void *ptr, long size) {\n" +
"    static long g_pagesize;\n" +
"    static long g_regionsize;\n" +
"    int rc = MUNMAP_FAILURE;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"    printf (\"munmap %p %d\\n\", ptr, size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Wait for spin lock */\n" +
"    slwait (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    /* First time initialization */\n" +
"    if (! g_pagesize)\n" +
"        g_pagesize = getpagesize ();\n" +
"    if (! g_regionsize)\n" +
"        g_regionsize = getregionsize ();\n" +
"    /* Assert preconditions */\n" +
"    assert ((unsigned) ptr % g_regionsize == 0);\n" +
"    assert (size % g_pagesize == 0);\n" +
"    /* Free this */\n" +
"    if (! VirtualFree (ptr, 0,\n" +
"                       MEM_RELEASE))\n" +
"        goto munmap_exit;\n" +
"    rc = 0;\n" +
"#ifdef TRACE\n" +
"    printf (\"Release %p %d\\n\", ptr, size);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"munmap_exit:\n" +
"#if defined (USE_MALLOC_LOCK) && defined (NEEDED)\n" +
"    /* Release spin lock */\n" +
"    slrelease (&g_sl);\n" +
"#endif\n" +
"    return rc;\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"static void vminfo (CHUNK_SIZE_T  *free, CHUNK_SIZE_T  *reserved, CHUNK_SIZE_T  *committed) {\n" +
"    MEMORY_BASIC_INFORMATION memory_info;\n" +
"    memory_info.BaseAddress = 0;\n" +
"    *free = *reserved = *committed = 0;\n" +
"    while (VirtualQuery (memory_info.BaseAddress, &memory_info, sizeof (memory_info))) {\n" +
"        switch (memory_info.State) {\n" +
"        case MEM_FREE:\n" +
"            *free += memory_info.RegionSize;\n" +
"            break;\n" +
"        case MEM_RESERVE:\n" +
"            *reserved += memory_info.RegionSize;\n" +
"            break;\n" +
"        case MEM_COMMIT:\n" +
"            *committed += memory_info.RegionSize;\n" +
"            break;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        memory_info.BaseAddress = (char *) memory_info.BaseAddress + memory_info.RegionSize;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n") +
(
"static int cpuinfo (int whole, CHUNK_SIZE_T  *kernel, CHUNK_SIZE_T  *user) {\n" +
"    if (whole) {\n" +
"        __int64 creation64, exit64, kernel64, user64;\n" +
"        int rc = GetProcessTimes (GetCurrentProcess (),\n" +
"                                  (FILETIME *) &creation64,\n" +
"                                  (FILETIME *) &exit64,\n" +
"                                  (FILETIME *) &kernel64,\n" +
"                                  (FILETIME *) &user64);\n" +
"        if (! rc) {\n" +
"            *kernel = 0;\n" +
"            *user = 0;\n" +
"            return FALSE;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        *kernel = (CHUNK_SIZE_T) (kernel64 / 10000);\n" +
"        *user = (CHUNK_SIZE_T) (user64 / 10000);\n" +
"        return TRUE;\n" +
"    } else {\n" +
"        __int64 creation64, exit64, kernel64, user64;\n" +
"        int rc = GetThreadTimes (GetCurrentThread (),\n" +
"                                 (FILETIME *) &creation64,\n" +
"                                 (FILETIME *) &exit64,\n" +
"                                 (FILETIME *) &kernel64,\n" +
"                                 (FILETIME *) &user64);\n" +
"        if (! rc) {\n" +
"            *kernel = 0;\n" +
"            *user = 0;\n" +
"            return FALSE;\n" +
"        }\n" +
"        *kernel = (CHUNK_SIZE_T) (kernel64 / 10000);\n" +
"        *user = (CHUNK_SIZE_T) (user64 / 10000);\n" +
"        return TRUE;\n" +
"    }\n" +
"}\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif /* WIN32 */\n" +
"\n" +
"#endif // NDEBUG\n" +
"\n" +
"};  /* end of namespace KJS */\n");


var thai =
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¸à¸²à¸à¸§à¸´à¸à¸´à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸µà¸¢ สาราà¸à¸¸à¸à¸£à¸¡à¹à¸ªà¸£à¸µ\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸à¸µà¹: à¸à¹à¸²à¸¢à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸²à¸, à¸à¹à¸à¸«à¸²\n" +
"	\n" +
"\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸¹à¸à¸¥à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸à¸à¸²à¸ à¸à¸¹à¸à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸§à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸²à¸¢à¸à¸£à¸±à¹à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸±à¸ à¸à¸²à¸£à¹à¸à¹à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸¹à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¹à¸¡à¹à¹à¸à¹à¸¥à¸à¸à¸°à¹à¸à¸µà¸¢à¸ หรือà¸à¸¹à¹à¹à¸à¹à¹à¸«à¸¡à¹à¹à¸¡à¹à¸ªà¸²à¸¡à¸²à¸£à¸à¸à¸³à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸°à¸à¸µà¹\n" +
"à¸à¸¸à¸à¸ªà¸²à¸¡à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸ªà¸à¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¹à¸«à¹à¸ à¹à¸ªà¸à¸­à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡ หรือà¸à¸­à¹à¸«à¹à¸¢à¸à¹à¸¥à¸´à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¹à¸à¹à¹à¸à¸«à¸à¹à¸²à¸­à¸ à¸´à¸à¸£à¸²à¸¢ หรือลà¸à¸à¸°à¹à¸à¸µà¸¢à¸à¹à¸à¸¢à¸ªà¸£à¹à¸²à¸à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸à¸¹à¹à¹à¸à¹\n" +
"   \n" +
"วิà¸à¸´à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸µà¸¢:à¸à¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸à¸±à¸à¸ªà¸£à¸£\n" +
"\n" +
"    \"à¹à¸à¸¢\" à¹à¸à¸¥à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸¡à¸²à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸µà¹ สำหรัà¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸«à¸¡à¸²à¸¢à¸­à¸·à¹à¸ à¸à¸¹à¸à¸µà¹ à¹à¸à¸¢ (à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸à¸³à¸à¸§à¸¡)\n" +
"\n" +
"ราà¸à¸­à¸²à¸à¸²à¸à¸±à¸à¸£à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´à¹à¸à¸¢ 	à¸à¸£à¸²à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´ 	à¸à¸£à¸²à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸´à¸\n" +
"à¸à¸³à¸à¸§à¸±à¸: à¸à¸²à¸à¸´ ศาสà¸à¸² à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸©à¸±à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¹\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸¥à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´: à¹à¸à¸¥à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¹à¸ªà¸à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸§à¸ 	à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸à¸£\n" +
"13°44â²N 100°30â²E\n" +
"à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¹à¸«à¸à¹à¸ªà¸¸à¸ 	à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸à¸£\n" +
"ภาษาราà¸à¸à¸²à¸£ 	ภาษาà¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"รัà¸à¸à¸²à¸¥ 	à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸«à¸²à¸£\n" +
" - à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸¸à¸à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸£à¸±à¸ 	à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸ à¸¹à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸¥à¸­à¸à¸¸à¸¥à¸¢à¹à¸à¸\n" +
" - à¸à¸²à¸¢à¸à¸£à¸±à¸à¸¡à¸à¸à¸£à¸µ 	à¸à¸¥à¹à¸­à¸à¸ªà¸¸à¸£à¸¢à¸¸à¸à¸à¹ à¸à¸¸à¸¥à¸²à¸à¸à¸à¹\n" +
" - à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸à¸°à¸¡à¸à¸à¸£à¸µà¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸¡à¸±à¹à¸à¸à¸à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´ 	à¸à¸¥à¸­à¸²à¸à¸²à¸¨à¹à¸­à¸ à¸à¸¥à¸´à¸ à¸à¸¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸ªà¸¸à¸ (รัà¸à¸©à¸²à¸à¸²à¸£)\n" +
"สà¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸²à¹à¸à¹à¸\n" +
"⢠สุà¹à¸à¸à¸±à¸¢\n" +
"⢠à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¸¨à¸£à¸µà¸­à¸¢à¸¸à¸à¸¢à¸²\n" +
"⢠à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¸à¸à¸à¸¸à¸£à¸µ\n" +
"⢠à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¸£à¸±à¸à¸à¹à¸à¸ªà¸´à¸à¸à¸£à¹ 	\n" +
"à¸.ศ. 1781â1911\n" +
"1893â2310\n" +
"2310â6 à¹à¸¡à¸©à¸²à¸¢à¸ 2325\n" +
"6 à¹à¸¡à¸©à¸²à¸¢à¸ 2325âà¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸¸à¸à¸±à¸\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸à¸µà¹\n" +
" - à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¸«à¸¡à¸\n" +
" \n" +
" - à¸à¸·à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸³ (%) 	 \n" +
"514,000 à¸à¸¡.² (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 49)\n" +
"198,457 à¹à¸¡à¸¥à¹Â² \n" +
"0.4%\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸£\n" +
" - 2548 à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸²à¸\n" +
" - 2543\n" +
" - à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸«à¸à¸²à¹à¸à¹à¸ 	 \n" +
"62,418,054 (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 19)\n" +
"60,916,441\n" +
"122/à¸à¸¡Â² (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 59)\n" +
"{{{population_densitymi²}}}/à¹à¸¡à¸¥à¹Â² \n" +
"GDP (PPP)\n" +
" - รวม\n" +
" - à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸£ 	2548 à¸à¹à¸²à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸²à¸\n" +
"$559.5 billion (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 21)\n" +
"$8,542 (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 72)\n" +
"HDI (2546) 	0.778 (อัà¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 73) â à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸¥à¸²à¸\n" +
"สà¸à¸¸à¸¥à¹à¸à¸´à¸ 	à¸à¸²à¸ (฿) (THB)\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸§à¸¥à¸² 	(UTC+7)\n" +
"รหัสอิà¸à¹à¸à¸­à¸£à¹à¹à¸à¹à¸ 	.th\n" +
"รหัสà¹à¸à¸£à¸¨à¸±à¸à¸à¹ 	+66\n" +
"\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ หรือ ราà¸à¸­à¸²à¸à¸²à¸à¸±à¸à¸£à¹à¸à¸¢ à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¸­à¸¢à¸¹à¹à¹à¸à¹à¸­à¹à¸à¸µà¸¢à¸à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸­à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¸¢à¸à¹à¸à¹ มีà¸à¸£à¸¡à¹à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸´à¸¨à¸à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸­à¸­à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸¥à¸²à¸§à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸à¸±à¸¡à¸à¸¹à¸à¸² à¸à¸´à¸¨à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸´à¸à¸­à¹à¸²à¸§à¹à¸à¸¢à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸¡à¸²à¹à¸¥à¹à¸à¸µà¸¢ à¸à¸´à¸¨à¸à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸°à¹à¸¥à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸²à¸¡à¸±à¸à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸à¸¡à¹à¸² à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸à¸´à¸¨à¹à¸«à¸à¸·à¸­à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸¡à¹à¸²à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸¥à¸²à¸§ à¹à¸à¸¢à¸¡à¸µà¹à¸¡à¹à¸à¹à¸³à¹à¸à¸à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¹à¸§à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¸²à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸ªà¸«à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸²à¸à¸´ à¹à¸­à¹à¸à¸ à¹à¸¥à¸° อาà¹à¸à¸µà¸¢à¸ มีศูà¸à¸¢à¹à¸£à¸§à¸¡à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸à¸à¸£à¸­à¸à¸­à¸¢à¸¹à¹à¸à¸µà¹ à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸à¸£ à¸à¸¶à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸§à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨\n" +
"\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸ à¸¹à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸¥à¸­à¸à¸¸à¸¥à¸¢à¹à¸à¸ à¸à¸£à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸©à¸±à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸£à¸­à¸à¸£à¸²à¸à¸¢à¹ à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸°à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸¸à¸à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸£à¸±à¸ ยาวà¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¥à¸à¸à¸¶à¸ 60 à¸à¸µ\n" +
"\n" +
"\n" +
"à¹à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸«à¸²\n" +
"[à¸à¹à¸­à¸]\n" +
"\n" +
"    * 1 à¸à¸£à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸´à¸¨à¸²à¸ªà¸à¸£à¹\n" +
"          o 1.1 à¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"    * 2 à¸à¸²à¸£à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸à¸à¸£à¸­à¸\n" +
"          o 2.1 à¹à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸à¸à¸£à¸­à¸\n" +
"          o 2.2 à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¹à¸«à¸à¹ / à¸à¸±à¸à¸«à¸§à¸±à¸à¹à¸«à¸à¹\n" +
"    * 3 ภูมิอาà¸à¸²à¸¨à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸ à¸¹à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨\n" +
"          o 3.1 ภูมิà¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨\n" +
"          o 3.2 ภูมิอาà¸à¸²à¸¨\n" +
"    * 4 à¹à¸¨à¸£à¸©à¸à¸à¸´à¸\n" +
"          o 4.1 à¹à¸¨à¸£à¸©à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸±à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨\n" +
"          o 4.2 à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸¡à¸à¸²à¸à¸¡\n" +
"          o 4.3 à¸à¸²à¸£à¸ªà¸·à¹à¸­à¸ªà¸²à¸£\n" +
"    * 5 สัà¸à¸à¸¡\n" +
"          o 5.1 à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´\n" +
"          o 5.2 ศาสà¸à¸²\n" +
"          o 5.3 à¸à¸²à¸£à¸¨à¸¶à¸à¸©à¸²\n" +
"          o 5.4 ภาษา\n" +
"          o 5.5 ศิลà¸à¸°à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸à¸£à¸£à¸¡\n" +
"          o 5.6 à¸à¸µà¸¬à¸²\n" +
"          o 5.7 วัà¸à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸\n" +
"    * 6 ลำà¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸\n" +
"    * 7 อà¹à¸²à¸à¸­à¸´à¸\n" +
"    * 8 à¹à¸«à¸¥à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸­à¸¡à¸¹à¸¥à¸­à¸·à¹à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸´à¸¨à¸²à¸ªà¸à¸£à¹\n" +
"\n" +
"    à¸à¸¹à¸à¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸«à¸¥à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ à¸à¸£à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸´à¸¨à¸²à¸ªà¸à¸£à¹à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"\n" +
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"วัà¸à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"วัà¸à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢à¸à¸°à¸¡à¸µà¸à¸³à¸à¸§à¸à¸¡à¸²à¸à¹à¸à¸¢à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸°à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¹à¸¡à¹à¹à¸à¹à¸§à¸±à¸à¸«à¸¢à¸¸à¸à¸£à¸²à¸à¸à¸²à¸£ à¸à¸¶à¹à¸à¸à¸°à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¸à¸¶à¹à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸±à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸¡à¸µà¹à¸«à¸à¸¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸à¹à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸¶à¹à¸ à¹à¸à¸¢à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸´à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢à¸à¸£à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 5 à¸à¸±à¸à¸§à¸²à¸à¸¡ à¹à¸à¹à¸ à¸à¸²à¸¡à¸§à¸±à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸£à¸²à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¸ à¸ à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¹à¸²à¸­à¸¢à¸¹à¹à¸«à¸±à¸§ ภูมิà¸à¸¥à¸­à¸à¸¸à¸¥à¸¢à¹à¸à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"    à¸à¸¹à¸à¸à¸à¸§à¸²à¸¡à¸«à¸¥à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ วัà¸à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"\n" +
"ลำà¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸³à¸à¸±à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"    * à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸©à¸±à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¹à¹à¸à¸¢à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸²à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸ à¸¹à¸¡à¸´à¸à¸¥à¸­à¸à¸¸à¸¥à¸¢à¹à¸à¸ à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸«à¸²à¸à¸©à¸±à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸£à¸­à¸à¸£à¸²à¸à¸¢à¹à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸°à¸à¸£à¸°à¸¡à¸¸à¸à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸£à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¥à¸\n" +
"    * à¸à¸£à¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸¯ à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸§à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸¡à¸µà¸à¸·à¹à¸­à¸¢à¸²à¸§à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¥à¸ (169 à¸à¸±à¸§à¸­à¸±à¸à¸©à¸£)\n" +
"    * à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸¨à¸£à¸©à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ อยูà¹à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 71 à¸à¸²à¸ 155 à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸¨à¸£à¸©à¸à¸à¸´à¸ à¸à¸²à¸¡ Index of Economic Freedom\n" +
"    * à¸à¸±à¸à¸«à¸§à¸±à¸à¸«à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸²à¸¢à¹à¸à¹à¸£à¸±à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸±à¸à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸¢à¸ªà¸²à¸£ Modern Maturity à¸à¸­à¸à¸ªà¸«à¸£à¸±à¸à¹à¸¡à¸·à¹à¸­ à¸.ศ. 2544 วà¹à¸²à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¡à¸·à¸­à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¹à¸²à¸­à¸¢à¸¹à¹à¸ªà¸³à¸«à¸£à¸±à¸à¸à¸¹à¹à¸ªà¸¹à¸à¸­à¸²à¸¢à¸¸à¸à¸²à¸§à¸­à¹à¸¡à¸£à¸´à¸à¸±à¸à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 7 à¸à¸­à¸à¹à¸¥à¸ [9]\n" +
"    * Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking à¸.ศ. 2546 อยูà¹à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 34 à¸à¸²à¸ 104 [10]\n" +
"    * à¸à¸¶à¸à¹à¸à¸«à¸¢à¸ 2 à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸¶à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸¹à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸ªà¸¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸ªà¸¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸­à¸±à¸à¸à¸±à¸ 30 à¸à¸­à¸à¹à¸¥à¸ à¸.ศ. 2549\n" +
"\n" +
"อà¹à¸²à¸à¸­à¸´à¸\n" +
"\n" +
"   1. â 4th edition \"ANKOR an introduction to the temples\" Dawn Rooney ISBN: 962-217-683-6\n" +
"   2. â à¹à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¸±à¸¢à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¸à¸±à¹à¸ (à¸à¸±à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸£à¸´à¸ªà¸à¹à¸¨à¸à¸§à¸£à¸£à¸©à¸à¸µà¹ 17 à¹à¸à¸¢à¸¸à¹à¸£à¸) ภาษาสาà¸à¸¥à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¹à¸­à¸£à¸°à¸«à¸§à¹à¸²à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨ (lingua franca) à¸à¸·à¸­ ภาษาà¸à¸£à¸±à¹à¸à¹à¸¨à¸ª à¹à¸­à¸à¸ªà¸²à¸£à¸£à¸°à¸«à¸§à¹à¸²à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¸à¸°à¹à¸à¹à¸ à¸²à¸©à¸²à¸à¸£à¸±à¹à¸à¹à¸¨à¸ªà¹à¸à¹à¸à¸«à¸¥à¸±à¸ รวมà¸à¸¶à¸à¸«à¸à¸±à¸à¸ªà¸·à¸­à¹à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¹à¸à¸¢à¸£à¸¸à¹à¸à¹à¸£à¸à¹ à¸à¹à¸§à¸¢\n" +
"   3. â à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸¨à¸£à¸©à¸à¸à¸´à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ à¸à¸²à¸à¹à¸§à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸²à¸£à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"   4. â à¸à¹à¸²à¸§à¹à¸à¸¢ ยà¹à¸²à¸à¸à¹à¸²à¸§à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸² สรà¹à¸²à¸à¹à¸à¸¢à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸¨à¸¹à¸à¸¢à¹à¸à¸¥à¸²à¸à¸à¹à¸²à¸§à¹à¸¥à¸ à¹à¸à¸¢ à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸¥à¸¢à¸µà¸à¸²à¸§à¸à¹à¸²à¸ มà¸à¸´à¸à¸ วัà¸à¸à¸µà¹ 01 มิà¸à¸¸à¸à¸²à¸¢à¸ à¸.ศ. 2550 à¸à¸µà¸à¸µà¹ 19 à¸à¸à¸±à¸à¸à¸µà¹ 408\n" +
"   5. â http://www.thairath.co.th/news.php?section=agriculture&content=52868\n" +
"   6. â à¸à¸¥à¸à¸¥à¸´à¸à¸à¸­à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ à¸à¸²à¸à¹à¸§à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸²à¸£à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"   7. â à¸à¹à¸­à¸¡à¸¹à¸¥à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§ à¸à¸²à¸à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ (à¸à¹à¸­à¸¡à¸¹à¸¥à¹à¸à¹à¸à¹à¸à¸¥à¹à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸¥)\n" +
"   8. â 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 รายละà¹à¸­à¸µà¸¢à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢à¸à¸²à¸à¹à¸§à¹à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸­à¹à¸­\n" +
"   9. â http://207.5.46.81/tat_news/detail.asp?id=963\n" +
"  10. â à¸à¹à¸­à¸¡à¸¹à¸¥à¸à¸²à¸ Webforum.org à¸.ศ. 2546\n" +
"\n" +
"à¹à¸«à¸¥à¹à¸à¸à¹à¸­à¸¡à¸¹à¸¥à¸­à¸·à¹à¸\n" +
"Commons\n" +
"à¸à¸­à¸¡à¸¡à¸­à¸à¸ªà¹ มีภาà¸à¹à¸¥à¸°à¸ªà¸·à¹à¸­à¸­à¸·à¹à¸à¹ à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§à¸à¸±à¸:\n" +
"à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"à¸à¸¥à¸´à¸à¹à¸à¸­à¸£à¹\n" +
"à¸à¸¥à¸´à¸à¹à¸à¸­à¸£à¹ มีรูà¸à¸ à¸²à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§à¸à¸±à¸: à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"\n" +
"    * รัà¸à¸à¸²à¸¥à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"    * à¸à¸²à¸£à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§à¹à¸«à¹à¸à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"    * à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢à¸¨à¸¶à¸à¸©à¸² หà¹à¸­à¸à¸ªà¸¡à¸¸à¸à¸£à¸±à¸à¸ªà¸ à¸² สหรัà¸à¸­à¹à¸¡à¸£à¸´à¸à¸²\n" +
"    * à¸à¸à¸à¸²à¸à¸¸à¸à¸£à¸¡à¸à¹à¸­à¸à¹à¸à¸µà¹à¸¢à¸§à¹à¸à¸¢\n" +
"    * à¹à¸à¸à¸à¸µà¹à¸à¸£à¸°à¹à¸à¸¨à¹à¸à¸¢ Longdo Map\n";

function get_most_popular(text) {
  var i;
  var frequencies = new Object();
  var letter;
  for (i = 0; i < text.length; i++) {
    letter = text.charAt(i);
    if (typeof(frequencies[letter]) == 'undefined')
      frequencies[letter] = 0;
    frequencies[letter]++;
  }
  var most = [];
  for (letter in frequencies) {
    if (frequencies[letter] > 50) {
      most.push(letter);
    }
  }
  most.sort();
  return most;
}


var languages = new Array(
    chinese,     // 1
    cyrillic,    // 2
    devanagari,  // 3
    english,     // 4
    greek,       // 5
    hebrew,      // 6
    japanese,    // 7
    korean,      // 8
    persian,     // 9
    source,      // 10
    thai);       // 11


var number_re = /[0-9]/;
var latin_lc = "[a-zA\u0631]";
assertEquals(7, latin_lc.length);
var latin_lc_re = new RegExp(latin_lc);
var latin_lc_re2 = new RegExp(/[a-zA\u0631]/);

assertEquals(13793, chinese.length, "chinese utf8 in source");
assertEquals(60606, cyrillic.length, "cyrillic utf8 in source");
assertEquals(20203, devanagari.length, "devanagari utf8 in source");
assertEquals(37505, english.length, "english utf8 in source");
assertEquals(30052, greek.length, "greek utf8 in source");
assertEquals(25640, hebrew.length, "hebrew utf8 in source");
assertEquals(31082, japanese.length, "japanese utf8 in source");
assertEquals(12291, korean.length, "korean utf8 in source");
assertEquals(13851, persian.length, "persian utf8 in source");
assertEquals(177470, source.length, "source utf8 in source");
assertEquals(18315, thai.length, "thai utf8 in source");

munged_sizes = new Array(17197, 2511, 2645, 3820, 3086, 2609,
                         27231, 12972, 2014, 24943, 2773);


var i = 0;
for (idx in languages) {
  i++;
  var text = languages[idx];
  assertTrue(latin_lc_re.test(text), "latin_lc" + i);
  assertTrue(latin_lc_re2.test(text), "latin_lc" + i);
  assertTrue(number_re.test(text), "number " + i);
  var most_popular = get_most_popular(text);
  var idx;
  var re = "([x";
  var last_c = -9999;
  for (idx in most_popular) {
    var c = most_popular[idx];
    if ("^]-\n\\".indexOf(c) == -1) {
      if (c.charCodeAt(0) > last_c &&
          c.charCodeAt(0) - 20 < last_c) {
        re += "-" + c;
        last_c = -9999;
      } else {
        re += c;
        last_c = c.charCodeAt(0);
      }
    }
  }
  re += "]+)";
  var char_class = new RegExp(re, "g");
  var munged = text.replace(char_class, "foo");
  assertEquals(munged_sizes[i - 1], munged.length, "munged size " + i);
}


function hex(x) {
  x &= 15;
  if (x < 10) {
    return String.fromCharCode(x + 48);
  } else {
    return String.fromCharCode(x + 97 - 10);
  }
}


function dump_re(re) {
  var out = "";
  for (var i = 0; i < re.length; i++) {
    var c = re.charCodeAt(i);
    if (c >= 32 && c <= 126) {
      out += re[i];
    } else if (c < 256) {
      out += "\\x" + hex(c >> 4) + hex(c);
    } else {
      out += "\\u" + hex(c >> 12) + hex(c >> 8) + hex(c >> 4) + hex(c);
    }
  }
  print ("re = " + out);
}

var thai_l_thingy = "\u0e44";
var thai_l_regexp = new RegExp(thai_l_thingy);
var thai_l_regexp2 = new RegExp("[" + thai_l_thingy + "]");
assertTrue(thai_l_regexp.test(thai_l_thingy));
assertTrue(thai_l_regexp2.test(thai_l_thingy));